LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 



Shelf ..7_..S_... 

UNITED STATES OF AMEEIOA. 



COUESES AiND METHODS. 



A HANDBOOK FOE TEACHEES 



PRIMARY, GRAMMAR, AND UNGRADED 
SCHOOLS. 



BY 



/ 



JOHN T. PRINCE, 

AGENT OF MASSACHUSETTS BOARD OF EDUCATION; FORMERLY 

SUPERINTENDENT OF THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS OF 

WALTHAM AND WATEBTOWN, MASS. 



*0 



3l*iC 




BOSTON: 
GINN & COMPANY, PUBLISHERS. 

1886. 



LblS'SS 



Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1886, by 

JOHN T. PRINCE, 
in the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. 



J. S. CusHiNQ & Co., Printers, Boston. 



PREFACE. 



rriHIS book is not intended to be an exhaustive or 
philosophical treatise upon Education ; nor does the 
author claim for the ideas advanced in it much that is 
new or original. It is written in response to a frequently 
expressed desire in various quarters for a brief plan of 
studies that may be pursued in elementary schools, and for 
a simple and direct statement of good methods of organ- 
ization, teaching, and discipline. While the hints and 
suggestions are directed mainly to untrained and inexperi- 
enced teachers, it is hoped that they may commend them- 
selves to the judgment of the best teachers, as being based 
upon correct principles of teaching. 

A Course of Studies may be so general as to be of little 
direct use, or so definite as to apply to few schools. It 
has been the aim in preparing the courses here presented 
to avoid both extremes, with the understanding that they 
may be modified to suit existing conditions. The best 
Course that can be made is simply a guide for the teacher 
in pointing out wha^ subjects are to be taught, the order 
in which subjects and parts of subjects are to be pre- 
sented, and the approximate amount "^o be done in a given 
time. The best use of such a Course will be determined 
not so much by the rigidity with which it is followed as 



IV PREFACE. 

b}^ the way it is interpreted and applied to the wants of 
tlie pupils. In other words, the subjects of study are of 
less consequence than the way in which they are taught. 
It is for this reason that comparatively little space has 
been given to the course or plan of studies and much to 
methods of teaching. 

Nearly all of the topical outlines presented in Part 11. 
have been tried in the schoolroom and found to be prac- 
tical and helpful. A few of them were taken in the first 
instance from professional books and periodicals, with no 
thought of republication, and therefore their authorship was 
not preserved. So far as the authors are known, due credit 
has been given. 

It should be said that while the suggestions given in 
Parts II. and III. are meant to apply to any Course of 
studies, the Course as here outlined should not be used 
alone. The bare outline of subjects as given in Part I. 
would be likely to be misunderstood and misapplied with- 
out the explanations given in Part II. 

Teachers of each grade should familiarize themselves 

with the requirements and methods of all other grades, so 

as to know what has been, or what should have been, 

previously done, and also to know the kind of work for 

which they are to prepare their pupils. 

J. T. P. 

Waltham, Mass., 
Nov. 1, 1886. 



CONTENTS. 



I. COURSES OF STUDY. 

PAGE 

1. Course for Graded Schools 1 

2. Course for Ungraded Schools 21 



II. METHODS OF TEACHING. 

1. Importance of Method 27 

2. Objects of Education 29 

3. General Principles 33 

4. General Suggestions. 

Graded and Ungraded Schools 40 

Purpose and Plan 42 

The Recitation 43 

Objects 43 

Teaching 43 

Drill 44 

Supplementary Information 44 

Topical Study and Recitation 44 

Attention 45 

Economy of Time 46 

Examinations 46 

6. Reading. 

(1) Definition , 48 

(2) First Steps 48 

(3) Transition 51 

(4) Silent Reading 52 

(5) Oral Reading 62 

Objects 52 

Natural Expression 53 



Vi ' CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Pronunciation 55 

Clear Enunciation 56 

Vocal Drill 57 

Fluency and Siglit-Reading 58 

Regular Reading-Lessons 59 

Preparation of Lesson 60 

(6) Principles 62 

(7) Cultivation of Taste 64 

6. Writing. 

(1) When begun 66 

(2) Appliances 66 

(3) Grading 6Q 

(4) Objects and Means 67 

Words and Sentences 67 

Single Letters 68 

Position 68 

Movements 70 

Copy-Book 71 

Rate 73 

7. Spelling. 

(1) Objects, etc 74 

(2) Study 74 

(3) Recitation 75 

(4) Rules 77 

(5) Examination and Correction 77 

(6) Reviews and Recreations 78 

8. Language. 

(1) Defined 80 

(2) Objects 80 

(3) Means 81 

Regular Studies 81 

Imitation 81 

Copying 82 

Object-Lessons 82 

Actions 83 

Pictures 84 

Dictation 86 

Information Lessons 87 



CONTENTS. Vii 

PAGE 

Story-Telling and Sight-Reading 87 

Paraphrasing 89 

Letter- Writing 89 

Business Forms and Notices 90 

Elliptical Sentences 91 

Compositions 92 

Outlines 93 

False Syntax 96 

(4) Correction of Written Work 97 

9. GRAaiMAR. 

(1) Defined 101 

(2) Outline of Study 101 

(3) Definitions 103 

(4) Etymology 104 

(5) Syntax 106 

(6) Parsing .107 

(7) Analysis 108 

(8) Synthesis 109 

(9) Correction of False Syntax 110 

10. Arithmetic. 

(1) Objects, etc 112 

(2) First Steps 113 

(3) Primary Drill 117 

(4) Practical Problems 119 

(5) Notation and Numeration 120 

(6) Fundamental Processes 121 

(7) Fractions 123 

(8) Applications 127 

Weights and Measures 127 

Percentage 128 

(9) Definitions and Rules 131 

(10) Mental Arithmetic 132 

(11) Explanations 135 

(12) Short Processes 136 

11. Geography. 

(1) Objects 137 

(2) Preparatory Lessons 138 

Local Geography 138 



VIU CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Plan-Drawing 14^ 

Study of Maps 146 

Moulding-Board 146 

(3) General Lessons from Globe and Maps 146 

Earth as a Whole » . . 146 

Continents 147 

(4) Countries and Sections 149 

(5) Mathematical and Physical Features 153 

(6) Map-Drawing 157 

(7) The Recitation 159 

(8) Geographical Reading 161 

12. History. 

(1) Objects 162 

(2) Preparatory Work „ 162 

(3) Topical Study 165 

(4) The Recitation 167 

(5) Topical Reviews 169 

(6) Historical Reading 171 

(7) Historical Recreations 172 

13. Physiology and Hygiene. 

(1) Object of Study 173 

(2) Means 173 

(3) Outline and Methods 173 

(4) Dissection *78 

(5) Emergencies 180 

(6) Use of Tobacco 181 

(7) Use of Alcohol 181 

14. Observation Lessons. 

(1) General Suggestions 188 

(2) Schedule of Subjects and Times 189 

(3) Color 191 

(4) Place 193 

(5) Human Body 195 

(6) Plants 198 

Primary Grades 198 

Grammar Grades 202 

(7) Animals 209 

Primary Grades 211 



CONTEISTS. ix 

PAGE 

Grammar Grades 213 

(8) Minerals 226 

(9) Astronomy 231 

(10) Physics 233 

15. Information Lessons. 

Primary Grades o 245 

Grammar Grades 247 

Newspaper 248 

Civil Government 249 

Animals, Plants, Minerals 249 

16. Drawing. 

Form 252 

Industrial Drawing 259 

Materials 259 

Preparation of Lesson 259 

"Working Drawings 260 

Construction of Objects 260 

Perspective 260 

Invention and Design 261 

Outline of Study 261 

17. Singing. 

Illustrative Lessons 267 

The Scale : 267 

Two-part Measure ... 268 

Three-part Measure 270 

Four-part Measure 271 

Singing from Figures 272 

Regular Staff Notation 275 

Notes and Rests 277 

18. Memory Lessons 279 

19. Busy-Work 280 

20. Physical Exercise , 283 

III. ORGANIZATION, MORAL TRAINING, AND 
GOVERNMENT. 
1. Organization. 

(1) School Buildings 290 

Locality 290 



CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Privies . . . . = 290 

Size of Schoolrooms o . . . „ o 290 

Lighting . . . _ ,. 291 

Ventilation and Heating 291 

Furniture and Furnishings 293 

Blackboards 294 

(2) Apparatus 294 

(3) Reference Books , 295 

(4) Classification 305 

Graded Schools 305 

Basis of Classification 306 

Size of Classes 306 

Divisions „ 307 

Intervals 307 

Partially Graded Schools , 309 

Ungraded Schools 309 

(5) Daily Programme of Recitation and Study 311 

(6) Records and Reports 316 

Moral Training. 

(1) Importance 321 

(2) Regular Studies, Means not Ends 322 

(3) Influence of Example 324 

(4) Regular Talks 325 

(5) Incidental Instruction 326 

(6) Devotional Exercise 326 

(7) Memorizing Gems 327 

(8) Government 328 

Defined ,...., 828 

Formation of Habit 329 

Obedience 330 

Truthfulness 331 

Industry 332 

Order and Neatness 333 

Politeness 333 

Contamination 334 

Condition of the School Premises 335 

Punishment ..... o 336 

Conditions of Good Government 337 

Self-Control 338 

Illustrative Example 339 

(9) Sympathy 343 



Part I. 

COURSE OF STUDIES FOR GRADED 
SCHOOLS. 

INTRODUCTORY NOTE. 

The following course includes a plan of work for 
nine years, divided into periods of five months each. 
The work of the ninth year may, if it is desired, be 
incorporated into one of the courses of the high school, 
making the grammar school course complete at the 
close of the eighth year. 

In addition to the subjects named, instruction in the 
following subjects is given throughout the entire 
course. 

DRAWING, SINGING, MEMORY LESSONS, GENERAL IN- 
FORMATION LESSONS, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 

For plan of work in these subjects, see Part II., 
where specific directions in reference to methods of 
teaching will be found. Attention is also given to 

MORALS AND MANNERS and tO PHYSICAL CULTURE. 

For details in these important departments, see pages 
321 and 283. 



2 COURSE OF STUDIES 

FIRST YEAR. FIRST HALF. 

OBSERVATION LESSONS. 

Color. — Differences and resemblances. 

Form. — Differences and resemblances. 

Size and Weig^ht. — Relative. 

Place. — Opposites; as, over, under; above, below; be- 
hind, before. 

Qualities. — Most prominent ; as, rough, smooth, hard, 
soft, heavy, light. 

Plants. — Common flowers observed and compared. 

Human Body. — Parts of body and movements. 

LANGUAGE. 

Talking. — Facts and stories in connection with obser- 
vation and reading lessons. 

Reading-. — Words and sentences from blackboard, 
chart, and first pages of two First readers. 

Writing. — Words and sentences from blackboard and 
from cards. Practice upon letter ^ with and without 
copy. 

ARITHMETIC. 

Develop numbers from 1 to 5. Count objects to 10. 



FIRST YEAR. SECOND HALF. 

OBSERVATION LESSONS. 

Color. — Red, orange, yellow, green, blue, violet, gray, 
brown. 



FOR GRADED SCHOOLS. 3 

Form. — Spherical, cubical, and cylindrical bodies; 
points, lines, angles ; moulding and drawing. 

Size and Weight. — Relative. 

Place. — Objects arranged from dictation ; position, di- 
rection. Plan-drawing begun. 

Human Body. — Parts of body and movements. 

Plants. — Flower, leaf, stem ; common plants observed 
and named. 

Animals. — Most familiar animals compared. 

LANGUAGE. 

Reading. — Sentences from blackboard, chart, and sev- 
eral First readers. 
Spelling. — Words from readers. 
Talking and AVriting. — Statements and stories in 

connection with reading and observation lessons. 
Copying from blackboard and from cards. Practice 
upon letters 



^PCA, 



ARITHMETIC. 



Develop numbers to 10 by objects. Express by words 
and figures all combinations to 6 at sight. Counting 
objects to 50. 



SECOND YEAR. FIRST HALF. 

OBSERVATION LESSONS. 

Color. — Shades and tints of common colors. 
Form. — Surface, edge, corner, triangle. Design with 
splints, colored paper, etc. 



4 COUllSE OF STUDIES 

Place. — Relative distance ; also inch, foot, yard. Plans : 

top of desk, floor of schoolroom. 
Qualities. — Tough, brittle, elastic, fragrant, opaque, 

transparent, porous, fluid, solid. Parts of objects; 

form of parts ; uses. 
Plants. — Parts of plant: root, stem, leaf, bud, flower. 

Names of common plants. 
Human Body. — Organs of senses. 

LANGUAGE. 

Reading. — Easier pieces of two Second readers. Easy 
sight-reading from several First readers daily. 

Spelling-. — Words from readers. Oral and written. 

Composition. — Oral and written statements and stories 
in connection with reading and observation les- 
sons. Teach use of capitals, period, and question- 
mark. 

Writing. — Copying from blackboard and cards. Writ- 
ing from dictation. Practice upon letters 

ARITHMETIC. 

Combination with objects to 15 ; without objects to 
10. Teach halves and fourths. Original problems with 
objects. Counting to 100. Expression by words and 
figures. Signs +, — , X, -^ used. 



FOR GRADED SCHOOLS. 6 

SECOND YEAR. SECOND HALF. 

OBSERVATION LESSONS. 

Color. — Hues, tints, shades. 

Form. — Prism, pyramid, cone, square, oblong ; designs 
with splints, colored paper, etc. 

Weig-ht and Measure. — Pound, ounce, peck, gallon, 
quart, pint, gill. 

Place. — Points of compass. Plan-drawing of school- 
room and yard. 

Plants. — Parts and shape of leaf: blade, veins, mar- 
gin ; parts of flowers : petals, stamens, pistils ; names 
of common plants and trees. 

Animals. — Common birds and fowls. External parts 
observed and compared. 

LANGUAGE. 

Reading. — Second readers completed. Sight-reading 
from several First readers daily. 

Spelling. — Words from readers. Oral and written. 

Composition. — Punctuation and capital letters. Letter- 
writing. Stories from pictures. Statements and stories 
in connection with observation and reading lessons. 

Writing. — Copying from card or blackboard. Writing 
from dictation. Copy-book practice. Special prac- 
tice upon 

Oj ej c-j ^j Aj Sj 

ARITHMETIC. 

Operations to 25. Building of tables; teach thirds 
and sixths. Original problems, with and without objects. 



6 COUKSE OF STUDIES 

Dozen, score, quire. Coins of United States. Writing 
of numbers to 100. Roman notation to XX. 



THIRD YEAR. FIRST HALF. 

OBSERVATION LESSONS. 

Plants, — Growth from seed to fruit traced. 

Color. — Complementary colors. Harmony of colors. 

Arrangement in designs. 
Form. — Spheroid, circle, ellipse, oval. Invention and 

design. 
Place. — Simple plans drawn to scale. 
Human Body. — Parts of body. Movements. Uses 

of parts. Health of parts. 
Home Geog'rapliy. — Observation of neighborhood. 

Plans drawn and moulded. Land surface. Water 

surface. Give geographical names. 

LANGUAGE. 

Reading. — Easier pieces of two Third readers. Sight- 
reading daily from several Second readers. 

Spelling-. — Writing of words and sentences selected 
from the readers. 

Composition. — Statements and stories in connection 
with observation and reading lessons. Letter-writing. 

Writing. — Copying from blackboard, cards, and read- 
ers. Writing from dictation. Practice upon 

^, ^^ cJ, cJ: <J( c^ <^ 

Copy-book practice. 



FOR GRADED SCHOOLS. 



ARITHMETIC. 



Operations to 50, in addition, subtraction, multiplica- 
tion, and division. Teach eighths. Reading and writ- 
ing of numbers to 1000. Roman notation to L. 
Building of tables, including common weights and 
measures. Original problems involved in common 
transactions and making change. 



THIRD YEAR. SECOND HALF. 

OBSERVATION LESSONS. 

Color. — Continuation of work of First Half. Review. 

Form. — Systematic review of entire work. 

Human Body. — Continuation of work of First Half. 

Animals. — Common birds and insects. Parts and 
habits observed and compared. 

Home Geog-rapliy. — Teach geographical ideas based 
upon observation, using geographical language: bodies 
of land; bodies of water; projections of land and 
water ; climate (weather) ; soil ; productions ; draw- 
ing and moulding of neighborhood and town. 

LANGUAGE. 

Reading. — Selection from two Third readers. Easy- 
sight-reading daily. 

Spelling. — Writing of words and sentences dictated 
from readers and from other sources. 

Composition. — Statements and stories in connection 
with observation and reading lessons, and pictures. 
Letter-writing. 



5 COUKSE OF STUDIES 

Writing-. — Copying and writing from dictation. Copy- 
book practice. 
Practice upon 

f' /^ /' T' 7' ^^ ^ Cr, (^, (J. 

ARITHMETIC. 

Operations to 144, in addition, subtraction, multiplica- 
tion, and division. Ninths, twelfths. Reading and 
writing of numbers to 100,000. Roman notation to M. 
Original problems involved in doing errands at a store. 
Rapid and accurate adding of columns of two figures. 



FOURTH YEAR. FIRST HALF. 

OBSERVATION LESSONS. 

Plants. — Name and description of parts of a plant, of 

a leaf, of a flower. 
Animals. — Sponge and coral examined. Star-fish and 

sea-urchin examined and compared. 

LANGUAGE. 

Reading. — Prescribed reader for study. Easy sight- 
reading daily. 

Spelling". — Writing of words and sentences from spell- 
ing-book and from other sources. 

Composition. — Statements in connection with observa- 
tion lessons. Abstracts from memory. Stories from 
pictures. Letter-writing. 



FOR GRADED SCHOOLS. ^ 



Writing-. — Copying and writing from dictation. Copy- 
book practice. 
Single-letter practice upon 



ARITHMETIC. 

Operations to 10,000, in addition and subtraction. 
Tenths and hundredths written decimally. Oral exer- 
cises daily, involving yards, feet, inches, gallons, quarts, 
pints. 

GEOGRAPHY. 

Preparatory work reviewed and continued. People 
(races, occupations, settlements, government, religion, 
states of society). Study of maps of known places 
(scale, natural features, etc.). 



FOURTH YEAR. SECOND HALF. 

OBSERVATION LESSONS. 

Plants. — Work of First Half continued. 
Animals. — Oyster, clam, and snail examined and com- 
pared. Lobster and crab examined and compared. 

LANGUAGE. 

Reatling-. — Prescribed reader for study. Eas}^ sight- 
reading daily. 

Spelling". — Writing of words and sentences from spell- 
ing-book and from other sources. 



30 ^ COURSE OF STUDIES 

Composition. — Same as First Half. 

Writing. — Copying and writing from dictation. Copy- 
book practice. 
Single-letter practice upon 



J,, «? j2 Qi, Q--, 



ARITHMETIC. 

Operations to 10,000, in multiplication and division. 
Writing and reading whole numbers. Teach by objects 
to add and subtract easy fractions in halves, fourths, and 
eighths. Notation in United States money. 

Oral exercises daily, involving yards, feet, inches, gal- 
lons, quarts, p^nts, bushels, pecks, dozen, quire. 

GEOGRAPHY. 

Earth as a whole : form and motions of the earth ; 
hemispheres ; bodies of land ; bodies of water ; climate ; 
productions; commerce. 



FIFTH YEAR. FIRST HALF. 

OBSERVATION LESSONS. 

Plants. — History of plant life. Embryo, growth, bud. 
Animals. — Spider, daddy-long-legs ; grasshopper, drag- 
on-fly ; squash-bug, beetle ; examined and compared. 



FOR GRADED SCHOOLS. 11 

LANGUAGE. 

Reading". — Prescribed reader for study. Easy sight- 
reading daily. 

Spelliiig-. — Writing of words and sentences from spell- 

' ing-book and from other sources. 

Composition. — Statements and compositions in connec- 
tion with the observation, reading and information 
lessons. Abstracts from memory. Dictation exer- 
cises. Stories from pictures. Letter-writing. 

Writing-. — Copying and writing from dictation. Cop}^- 
book practice. 

ARITHMETIC. 

Operations in whole numbers to millions, involving 
common weights and measures. Addition and subtrac- 
tion of fractions, both common and decimal, to twelfths 
and thousandths. Oral exercises, abstract and concrete. 

GEOGRAPHY. 

Study of North and South America by topics. 
Map-drawing by tracing. 



FIFTH YEAR. SECOND HALF. 

OBSERVATION LESSONS. 

Plants. — History of plant life. Flowers, fruit, seeds. 
Animals. — Flies, butterflies, and moths ; ants, wasps, 
and bees ; examined and compared. 



12 COUKSE OF STUDIES 

LANGUAGE. 

Heading. — Prescribed reader for study. Easy sight- 
reading daily. 

Spelling-. — Writing of words and sentences from spell- 
ing-book and from other sources. 

Composition. — Work of First Half continued. 

Writing. — Copying and writing from dictation. Copy- 
book practice. 

ARITHMETIC. 

Multiplication and division of fractions, both common 
and decimal, to twelfths and thousandths. Operations 
involving use of United States money and common 
weights and measures. 

Oral exercises with abstract and concrete numbers. 

GEOGRAPHY. 

Study of Europe, Asia, Africa, and Australia by 
topics. 

Map-drawing by tracing. 



SIXTH YEAR. FIRST HALF. 

OBSERVATION LESSONS. 

Plants. — Differences in stems, roots, leaves. 
Minerals. — Common minerals compared and named. 

Compared with reference to hardness, color, form, 

structure, lustre. 



FOR GRADED SCHOOLS. 13 

LANGUAGE. 

Reading'. — Prescribed reader for study. Easy siglit- 
readiiig daily. 

Spelling". — Writing of words and sentences from spell- 
ing-book and from other sources. 

Composition. — Statements and compositions in con- 
nection with the observation, reading, and informa- 
tion lessons. Abstracts from memory. Dictation 
exercises. Stories from pictures. Letter-writing. 

Writing. — Copy-book practice. 

AEITHMETIC. 

Factors and multiples. Addition and subtraction of 
common and decimal fractions. Oral exercises involv- 
ing common weights and measures. 

GEOGRAPHY. 

Study of countries and sections by topics: United 
States, Mexico, West Indies, British America, Brazil. 
Map-drawing. 
Earth as a whole : mathematical and physical features. 



SIXTH YEAR. SECOND HALF. 

OBSERVATION LESSONS. 

Plants. — Differences in flowers, fruits, and seeds. 
Minerals. — Work of First Half continued. 



14 COURSE OF STUDIES 

LANGUAGE. 

Reading. — Prescribed reader for study. Easy sight- 
reading daily. 

Spelling-. — Writing of words and sentences from spell- 
ing-book and from other sources. 

Composition. — Work of First Half continued. 

Writing-. — Copy-book practice. 

ARITHMETIC. 

Multiplication and division of fractions, common and 
decimal. 

Oral exercises involving common vi^eights and meas- 
ures. 

GEOGRAPHY. 

Study of countries and sections by topics : British 
Empire, France, Germany, Russian Empire ; also State 
and section in which pupils live. Map-drawing. 

Mathematical and physical features of the earth as a 
whole. 



SEVENTH YEAR. FIRST HALF. 

OBSERVATION LESSONS. 

Plants. — Differences in habits. Many kinds of shrubs 

and trees compared and named. 
Animals. — Marked and essential characteristics of 

fishes ; frogs and toads ; reptiles ; birds ; mammals. 

As many of each examined as practicable. 



FOR GRADED SCHOOLS. 15 



LANGUAGE. 



Reading. — Prescribed reader for study. Easy sight- 
reading daily. 

Spelling-. — Writing of words and sentences from spell- 
ing-book and from other sources. 

Composition. — Original compositions. Abstracts from 
memory. Paraphrasing. Letter-writing. Correction 
of false syntax. Business forms. 

Writing. — Copy-book practice. 

ARITHMETIC. 

Compound numbers, including all practical operations 
in long, square, and cubic measures, avoirdupois weight. 

GEOGRAPHY. 

Important features of the countries of Asia and Africa. 
Mathematical and physical features of the earth as a 
whole. 



SEVENTH YEAR. SECOND HALF. 

OBSERVATION LESSONS. 

Plants. — Composition and uses of different parts of 
plants. 

Animals. — Varieties of mammals, as flesh-eaters, gnaw- 
ers, cud-chewers, etc. ; also of birds, as climbers, birds 
of prey, swimmers, etc. ; described and compared. 

LANGUAGE. 

Reading. — Prescribed reader for study. Easy sight- 
reading daily. 



16 COURSE OF STUDIES 

Spelling. — Writing of words and sentences from spell- 
ing-book and from other sources. 
Composition. — Work of First Half continued. 

ARITHMETIC. 

Compound numbers, including metric system and all 
practical operations in all the weights and measures. 
Percentage. Simple interest. 

GEOGRAPHY. 

Important features of sections of Africa, Australia, 
Islands of Pacific. Also State and section in which 
pupils live. Mathematical and physical features of 
the earth as a whole. 



EIGHTH YEAR. FIRST HALF. 

OBSERVATION LESSONS. 

Plants. — Forest trees named and compared with refer- 
ence to size, stem, bark, leaves, fruit, wood. 

Minerals. — Teach to distinguish quartz, mica, feldspar, 
granite, galena, pyrite, halite. 

LANGUAGE. 

Reading. — Prescribed reader for study. Easy sight- 
reading daily. 

Spelling". — Writing of words from spelling-book and 
from other sources. 

Composition. — Exercises three times a week upon 
work indicated for the seventh year. 



FOPw GRADED SCHOOLS. 17 

Grammar. — Sentence, subject, and predicate. Parts 

of speech. 
Writing. — Copy-book practice. 

ARITHMETIC. 

Percentage, including commission and brokerage, in- 
surance, taxes, duties. Oral exercises daily. 

GEOGRAPHY. 

Three exercises a week upon countries and sections 
of Western Hemisphere by topics. 

HISTORY. 

Connected reading of American history up to the 
time of the Revolutionary War. Recitation by topics. 



EIGHTH YEAR. SECOND HALF. 

OBSERVATION LESSONS. 

Plants. — Work of First Half continued. Grains rec- 
ognized; parts compared. 

Minerals. — Teach to distinguish fluorite, corundum, 
magnetite, asbestos, hornblende, garnet, tourmaline, 
talc, serpentine, gypsum, calcite. 

LANGUAGE. 

Reading. — Prescribed reader for study. Easy sight- 
reading daily. 



18 COURSE OF STUDIES 

Spelling. — Writing of words from spelling-book and 
from other sources. 

Composition. — Work of First Half continued. 

Grammar. — Adjective, objective, and adverbial ele- 
ments ; kinds and properties of noun, pronoun, verb, 
adjective, adverb, preposition, conjunction. 

Writing. — Copy-book practice. 

ARITHMETIC. 

Interest, problems in interest, discount, notes, par- 
tial payments, banking. Oral exercises daily. 

GEOGRAPHY. 

Three exercises a week upon countries and sections 
of Eastern Hemisphere by topics. 

HISTORY. 

Connected reading of American history from the 
beginning of the Revolutionary War up to the present 
time. Recitation by topics. 



NINTH YEAR. FIRST HALF. 

OBSERVATION LESSONS. 

Physics. — Teach matter, body, substance, extension, 
volume, impenetrability, mobility, divisibility, poros- 
ity, compressibility, density, expansibility, elasticity, 
resistance (inertia, friction), velocity, momentum, 



FOR GRADED SCHOOLS. 19 

energy, effect of several forces acting together, 
cohesion, adhesion. 
Astronomy. — Form and motions of the earth. 

Sun : Effects, composition, comparative size, spots, 

ecHpses. 

Moon : Light, phases, eclipses. 

LANGUAGE. 

Reading. — English history and works of standard 
authors. 

Spelling". — Written reviews twice a week. 

Composition. — Exercises twice a week upon work in- 
dicated for Seventh Year. Essays monthly. 

Grammar. — Analysis continued ; words, phrases, 
clauses, complex and compound sentences; rules of 
construction taught and applied in parsing and in 
correction of sentences. 

ARITHI^IETIC. 

Ratio and proportion, square and cube root, and their 
application in mensuration of land, lumber, etc. Oral 
exercises daily. 

BOOK-KEEPING. 

Simple forms of accounts. 

GEOGRAPHY. 

General review once a week by topics. 

HISTORY. 

Work of Eighth Year reviewed. 



20 COUKSE OF STUDIES. 

NINTH YEAR. SECOND HALF. 

OBSERVATION LESSONS. 

Physics. — Application, by experiments, of facts learned 
during First Half, as balance, steelyard, pop-gun, 
lifting-pump, forcing-pump, barometer. 

Astronomy. — Planets: Appearance, movements, names, 
relative size, length of year, moons and rings, phases, 
conjunction. 

Fixed Stars : Appearance, distance, stars of first mag- 
nitude observed and named, constellations observed 
and named. 

LANGUAGE. 

Reading. — Work of First Half continued. 
Spelling-. — Work of First Half continued. 
Composition. — Work of First Half continued. 
Grammar. — Parsing and analysis ; constant application 
of rules of syntax in writing and correcting. 

ARITHMETIC. 

General review, involving definitions, formulas, and 
principles. Practical business problems and short proc- 
esses. Oral exercises daily. 

BOOK-KEEPING. 

Simple forms of accounts. 

GEOGRAPHY. 

General review once a week by topics. 

HISTORY. 

General topical review by subjects. 



COUESE OF STUDIES FOE UNGEADED 
SCHOOLS. 



o^^c 



INTRODUCTORY NOTE. 



The subjects to be taught are arranged in three 
groups, each group covering the work of three years. 
The work as here laid down is not intended to mean 
that the school should be divided into three classes and 
that each class should take the subjects indicated. The 
outline is given in three groups so as to indicate in a 
general way what ground should be gone over in a 
given time. For hints upon classification, see Classi- 
fication and Teaching of Ungraded Schools, page 309. 



FIRST PERIOD (THREE YEARS). 

Reading- and Spelling. 

Reading from blackboard, chart, and several First 
and Second readers. At end of Period to be able 
to read at sight and with good expression any ordinary 
Second reader. Vocal drill. Use of words in original 
sentences. Oral and written spelling of all common 
words of readers. 



22 COUESE OF STUDIES 

Writing-. 

Short, easy words in the beginning, and sentences 
as soon as possible. Use ruled or spaced lines. During 
first half of Period, provide copies ; during last half, 
let the pupils write without copies. Practise with and 
without copy upon the following letters in the order 
given : — 

^y ^y -ti^j ^ ^^^ <^j ^y <^j ^j "Oj ^ €^, 

^ /^ 4 4 o< c^ oC ^<^ 



/>/./././ 



Arithmetic. 



Accurate and rapid combinations and separations up 
to 100, carrying on the four fundamental rules together. 
Use objects up to 20. Children to make their own 
tables. Common store problems to be practised upon, 
using ordinary weights and measures. Teach halves, 
fourths, eighths, also pointing off for dollars, cents, and 
mills. 

liRiiguage. 

Daily practice in one or more of the following exer- 
cises : copying sentences from cards or blackboard ; 
talking and writing after information and object les- 
sons ; oral and written abstracts after reading; writing 
gems from memory ; literal descriptions of, and imagi- 
nary stories from, pictures ; writing of letters. 



FOR UNGRADED SCHOOLS. 23 

Observation Lessons. 

At least one lesson of fifteen minutes daily upon 
some one of the following subjects; form, distance, 
direction, color, human body, plants, animals, rocks. 

Home geography and plan-drawing. 

Miscellaneous. 

Drawing of leaves and other objects. Copying from 
drawing-cards. 

Singing by rote simple songs. 

Memorizing gems^ from five to ten lines weekly. 

Information lessons. 



SECOND PERIOD (THREE YEARS). 
Reading-. 

Several third and fourth readers. Frequent practice 
in sight-reading. Vocal drill. New words in original 
sentences. 

Spelling. 

Chiefly written. Half of the time from spelling- 
book, other half from readers, geographies, written 
papers, etc. 

Writing-. 

Practice upon single letters continued in following 
order : — 

12^ p.aAk (^.ot o^&^s.m 



24 COUIISE OF STUDIES 

Three copy-books with pen and ink. Penmanship to 
be considered in language and other written exercises. 

Arithmetic. 

Four fundamental rules to 1000, and afterwards to 
higher numbers; also tenths, hundredths, and thou- 
sandths. Applications in United States money, w^eights, 
and measures. Fractions, such as are involved in ordi- 
nary business, adding, subtracting, multiplying, and 
dividing. Daily exercises in mental problems. Short 
processes in practical problems. 

Geography. 

Home geography reviewed. Plan-drawing of neigh- 
borhood. General study of earth and continents from 
globe. United States, British Empire, France, Russia, 
Germany, Spain, Mexico, New England States, Massa- 
chusetts. Study and recite by topics. Map-drawing. 
Voyages and travels. 

Language. 

Same kind of exercises as given in First Period, only 
more complex. Correction of false syntax. 

Ohservation Lessons. 

From May to November : natural history, plants, trees, 
flowers. From November to May : rocks and animals ; 
common phenomena: dew, rain, snow, etc. 

Miscellaneous. 

In DRAWING, SINGING, MEMORY LESSONS, INFORMA- 
TION LESSONS, MORALS, and MANNERS, select from 
outlines given in graded course. 



FOR UNGRADED SCHOOLS. 26 

THIRD PERIOD. (THREE YEARS.) 

Reading-. 

Several advanced Fourth and Fifth readers or their 
equivalent. Easy sight-reading of histories and geo- 
graphical readers. Vocal drill. Use of new and diffi- 
cult words in sentences. Definitions and synonyms. 
Use of dictionary in defining and pronouncing. 

Spelling. 

Writing of words and sentences from spelling-book. 
Half the time should be given to words selected from 
the reader, written examinations and other papers. 

Writing-. 

Tl\ree copy-books. Blank books for practice and for 
copying topics and pieces of poetry. All written work 
to be carefully written. 

Arithmetic. 

Fractions, common and decimal. Weights and meas- 
ures. Mensuration. Percentage, including interest, 
insurance, profit and loss, discount and all ordinary 
business problems. Mental work daily, with explana- 
tions. Book-keeping in simple forms of accounts. 

Lianguag-e and Grammar. 

Language work of previous Periods continued. Part 
of the time during latter half of Period to be given to 
the study of grammar and analysis. Correction of false 
syntax, with rules for correction. Composition-writing. 



26 COURSE OF STUDIES. 

Observation Lessons. 

Lessons of Second Period continued, one hour a 
week. Also elementaiy lessons in physics. 

Geography. 

Effects of motions of the earth. Latitude, longitude, 
climate, zones, winds (kinds and cause). Formation 
of land surface. Topical study and map-drawing of 
countries not previously studied. Latter part of period 
given to reviews. Books of travel to be read. 

History. 

Easy books of history and biography to be read at 
sight and talked about. Topical study with regular 
text-book during latter part of period. 

Miscellaneous. 

In DRAWING, SINGING, MEMORY LESSONS, PHYSIOL- 
OGY and HYGIENE, and information lessons, select 
from work given in Part IL 



Part IL 
METHODS OF TEACHING. 



3^=^C 



IMPORTAXCE OF METHOD. 

The importance of method in all kinds of skilled work 
has always and everywhere been recognized. The artist 
and the skilled artisan know that patient stud3^and labor 
are necessary to the best snccess, and they are willing 
to spend years in acqniring their art. On the other 
hand, there are some kinds of work, like shovelling sand 
or turning a grindstone, which place method in a rela- 
tively subordinate position. On wdiich side shall we place 
teaching — on the side of skilled or unskilled work? Is 
teaching an art which requires thought, purpose, and 
method, or does it belong to that other kind of work 
wdiich requires little or no method? 
" In determining the place and character of teaching, 
we should not regard instruction as the whole of educa- 
tion, nor should we be misled by the practice of some 
teachers whose teaching consists of assigning and hear- 
ing lessons from a book. • We should think of the 
teacher not simply as a purveyor of facts, but as a 
moulder of the human mind. ^ If we think of him in 
this wav, his work is exalted in our estimation and 



28 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

placed where it should be — alongside of that other 
work whose object is the cure of disease and the promo- 
tion of bodily health. « Thus the work of the teacher, 
like that of the physician, becomes a profession iu which 
there are clearly defined methods based upon laws and 
principles. 

But why, it may be asked, should there be any more 
care and solicitude in feeding and training the mind 
than in feeding and training the body ? For very obvious 
reasons. In the first place, however important it is to 
have a sound body, it is still more important to have a 
sound mind. Moreover, it is far easier to keep the body 
in health and vigor than to build up the mind com- 
pletely, and to keep it in a condition to do all that it is 
capable of doing. While the laws of both body and 
mind are fixed and constant in their operation, the laws 
of the mind are more obscure and more difficult to un- 
derstand than are those of the body. Unlike the body, 
the mind does not hang out its danger-signals of aches 
and distortions when food of an improper kind is given 
or when there is improper training. It is for this reason, 
and also because they are liidden from sight, that weak- 
ness and deformity of the mind are not guarded against 
as are weakness and deformity of the body, although the 
former are quite as common as the latter and far 
more deplorable. Repugnance to study, want of appli- 
cation, idleness, defective observation and memory, unre- 
liable judgment and reasoning, and moral turpitude, all 
may result, in part at least, from wrong methods or no 
methods of teaching and affect the whole future life of 
the boy or girl. The best safeguard against these de- 
fects is a good school, taught by a teacher who un- 



OBJECTS OF EDUCATION. 29 

derstaiids and perseveringly follows right methods of 
teaching. How shall we determine what methods are 
light and what methods are wrong ? 



OBJECTS OF EDUCATIOX. 

To know the means of doing anything, it is all im- 
portant that w^e shonld have a clear idea of what we 
desire to accomplish. One of the chief canses of de- 
fective methods of teaching is want of purpose on the 
part of teacliers. Without purpose there can be no 
definite plan, and without plan there will be mistakes 
and wasted energy. Our first question should be, there- 
>j fore, What is the end or use of education ? " To pre- 
pare us for complete living," Spencer says, ''is the 
function of education." No one is likely to find fault 
with such a statement, especially if the highest and 
best service to others is regarded as an essential ele- 
ment of complete living. Assuming this to be the end 
of education, let us see what objects of school educa- 
tion are to be sought by the teacher. 
^ The conditions of the highest and best service to 
others are a sound body and a well-informed mind. 
Bodily health should be promoted both directly and 
indirectly in the school. Physical exercises of the right 
kind and amount should be practised, habits of regu- 
larity should be formed, and the business of the school 
should be so regulated as to prevent over-work and 
over-worry on the part of the pupils. Moreover, thor- 
ough instruction should be given in physiology and 
hygiene, that the pupils may know the importance of 



30 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

keeping the body in health and that they may know 
how it can be done. 

The second condition of the highest and best ser- 
vice to others, is a well-informed mind. What is 
meant by a "well-informed mind"? If it is simply 
a mind possessed of knowledge or facts, there would 
be little need of carrying school stndies beyond the 
rudiments, for books and lectures could do the rest. 
Or, if it were thought best to carry on such an educa- 
tion in the schools, books could be placed before the 
children to be memorized and recited, — a practice which 
can hardly be called teaching, although it passes for 
such in some schools at the present day. The posses- 
sion of facts, even though they are gained in this way, 
may be useful, but unless moie has been done for the 
child than this, or rather unless he has done more for 
himself than this, he cannot be said to be properly edu- 
cated. The life which awaits him as a worker in some 
useful occupatioii, as a citizen and as a man, needs a 
well-developed mind, which he does not possess. His 
active powers, both of intellect and will, have not been 
strengthened by exercise. He has not formed the habit 
of concentration or prolonged attention ; his powers of 
observation and of reasoning are defective ; what he 
has acquired does not lie in his mind in an orderly way 
so as to be ready for use ; and most of all, his moral 
nature has not been so trained as to enable him to con- 
trol his acts, both in refraining from evil and in doing 
good to others. 

1. The first object of education, so far as the mind 
is concerned, is knowledge. What is knowledge? If a 
rubber ball is placed before a child, certain ideas are 



OBJECTS OF EDUCATION. 31 

formed in his mind, in agreement or disagreement with 
ideas previously formed. Ideas of color, form, hard- 
ness, etc., are thus formed ; and if names are applied 
to them, he says that the ball is white, round, and 
hard. This constitutes his knowledge ot the ball. If 
the child had never seen a ball, or if he had never seen 
anything white or felt anything round or hard, no 
ideas of whiteness or roundness or hardness could have 
been formed in his mind by simply telling him that 
the ball was white and round find hard. 

Words, then, are not knowledge, nor do they convey 
knowledge of material things to any one, unless the 
words are associated with ideas that have been previ- 
ously formed by the aid of the senses. The same prin- 
ciple is true of acts of the mind, which we may also call 
objects of thought. If, for example, we say "we form 
judgments," no idea of that act Avould be formed by any 
one who has not observed such an act in himself. In 
seeking knowledge, therefore, and in instructing others, 
we must not make the mistake of supposing that knowl- 
edge can be gained from words only or that memoriz- 
ing the product of other people's thinking is thinking 
itself. To lead pupils to think for themselves and to 
acquire knowledge, objects of thought should be so 
presented as to lead tliem to know the objects them- 
selves by recognizing their resemblances and differences 
and by perceiving the rehitions which their parts have 
to one another. 

2. The amount of knowledge which the young grad- 
uate of the school or college has is very small. He 
may be able to tell much of what others know% and this 
may be of use to him, but what he really has as the 



32 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

result of his own thinking, or what he has that will 
stay by him for any length of time, is comparatively 
little. What he most relies upon for assistance in the 
duties of life is his well trained powers of mind. If 
his memory only is trained, he has but little to aid him ; 
but if his powers of observation, attention, judgment, 
and reasoning have been strengthened by orderly ex- 
ercise, he has in his developed powers constant assist- 
ance in whatever he undertakes. Indeed, the difference 
between an educated and an uneducated person is seen 
more in tlie difference of mental development than in 
the difference pf amount of knowledge possessed. 

3. But the powers of the mind to be developed in- 
clude the sensibiUties and will as well as the powers 
of the intellect. The usefulness of a man, for which 
his early education prepares him, depends quite as much 
upon his desires and purposes as upon the thought em- 
ployed in carr3'ing them into effect. It is important, 
therefore, that there be a harmonious development of 
all the powers of the child if he is to be truly edu- 
cated. 

To attain these objects of education, the wise teacher 
acquaints himself with the principles of mental growth 
and development which have been deduced from much 
observation and experience, and which will serve as a 
guide for him in his difficult work. 

A few general principles of teaching are here given 
in the hope that they may suggest to }^oung teachers 
the importance of having a well defined purpose in all 
their methods. They may also serve to explain the 
reason for some of the methods reconnnended in the 
following pages. 



GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 33 



GENERAL PRIXCIPLES. 

1. Education aims to develop all the powers of the child,— 
physical, intellectual, moral, and spiritual. 

Complete living calls for all the assistance which 
every power of mind and body is capable of giving. 
The efficiency of each power depends upon the develop- 
ment of all, because they are closely connected and 
dependent upon one another. The activity of willing 
depends upon feeling, and feeling depends upon know- 
ing. Moreover, the developed mind needs the devel- 
oped body through which to act. 

2, The powers of mind and body are strengthened and deyel- 
oped by exercise. 

Weakness is the result of inaction, — a fact no less true 
of the mind than of the body. Teachers do not recog- 
nize this important principle when they do for their 
pupils what the pupils can do for themselves. Telling 
is not teaching, and helping a pupil over every obsta- 
cle is no kindness to liim. Self-development and self- 
instruction are the ends of teaching which is to lead the 
pupil to gain new knowledge through his own efforts. 
It is by these efforts that his faculties become strong 
and ready to act in any emergency. 

The cultivation of each faculty of the mind strength- 
ens that faculty and all the rest, and the neglect of any 
faculty tends to lessen the efficiency of all. Some exer- 
cise of the feelings and will is necessary to thought, 
while excessive indulgence of the feelings prevents clear 
and effective thinking. 



34 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

3. Exercise of the mental faculties should be judicious and 
harmonious. 

The subjects and methods of teacliing should be 
progressive, and alwaj^s adapted to the strength and 
capacity of the learner. Too much exercise may be as 
harmful as too little, and a wrong kind of development 
may do incalculable injury by neglecting some facul- 
ties which need to be exercised, and by exercising other 
faculties which are not ready for action. Again, modes 
of mental action differ greatly, and different treatment 
is needed for the proper development of each faculty. 

4. The natural development and capabilities of the mind are 
the guides to teaching. 

The teacher does not develop the minds of his pupils, 
nor does he determine the order of their development. 
Nature is the real educator, of whom he is only an as- 
sistant, and to whom, in general and in particular, he 
constantly looks fur guidance. By observation and 
study, the teacher becomes acquainted with the laws of 
mental growth and development, and is governed by 
them in choosing objects of knowledge, and in present- 
ing these to his pupils. 

5. The mental powers are most vigorous when they are exer- 
cised voluntarily. 

As a rule, we can do those things best which we most 
desire to do, and we generally desire to do that which 
is most pleasing to us. The degree of effort exerted is 
also measured by our willingness to do certain work, or 
to accomplish certain results. If tliis is true, it is 
plainly the duty of teachers to conduct their teaching 



GENEHAL PRINCIPLES. 35 

in such a way as to make study pleasurable and volun- 
tary. The work done by pupils need not necessarily be 
easy to be pleasurable. It is a mistake to suppose that 
children enjoy any work because it is easy. Food and 
physical exercise are pleasurable to tlie healthy bod}', 
but they are no more so than truth and mental exercise 
are to the healthy mind, provided the truth and exercise 
be of the right kind. Want of interest in school and 
aversion to study are frequently due to the fact that 
wrong subjects are taught or that a wrong kind of men- 
tal exercise is demanded. 

Sometimes teachers believe it to be necessary to give 
to pupils extra inducements to study or to attend to the 
work in hand, such as fear of punishment, loss of 
privilege, hope of reward, desire for a high rank or 
mark. Pupils may be made to work harder for a time 
under such stimulants, but like artificial stimulants of 
the bod}^ their effects are temporary and harmful. 
There is in the right kind of mental exercise a positive 
enjoyment which acts as an incentive to increased 
effort. It may be impossible with many requirements 
and a large number of pupils, to reach all in the right 
way; but a constant effort should be made by the 
teacher to make the work of every pupil voluntary and 
pleasurable. 

6. All mental acts depend for theii' eflSciency npon the power 
of attention, which should be assiduously cultivated from the 
beginning. 

The great value of attention and concentration of 
mind is unquestioned by any one. The difference be- 
tween a disciplined and an undisciplined mind is shown 



36 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

by the difference in the degree of attention of which it 
is capable. Some even go so far as to say that to learn 
to give attention is all there is of education. 

To cultivate the power of attention, the teacher 
should see tliat the mind of the pupil is not bent upon 
one subject too long; that there are few diverting 
influences, at least until the habit of voluntary atten- 
tion is fixed ; that the objects of attention are suited 
to the capabilities of the pupil ; and that the illustra- 
tions, anecdotes, and information are such as will arouse 
interest or an expectant curiosity, and not divert the 
attention from the subject in hand. 

7. Education consists largely in the formation of habits. 

The importance of forming correct habits in child- 
hood cannot be overestimated ; indeed, the principal 
work of all who have the care of the young is in this 
direction. A young person who enters upon the duties 
of life with correct habits of thought and action can be 
said to be well educated. Among the best habits to be 
formed in school are those of industry, attention, obser- 
vation, correct judgment, desiring to do good to others, 
doing good to others. 

These and all habits are formed by many repetitions 
of the same act, until there are both inclination to act 
and facility in acting. The best wa}', therefore, to form 
good habits or to correct bad ones, is to lead the child 
to do what we desire. him to do, in such a way as to give 
him pleasure, and with such frequency as to render the 
act easy to him. 



GENERAL PKINCIPLES. 6i 

8. The perceptive powers slioald be most exercised in child* 
hood. 

Although the powers of the mind are in a greater or 
less degree active in all periods of life, it is a matter of 
com-mon observation, that during childhood the observ- 
ing powers are more active and the reflective powers 
less active than at a later period. Facts and phenomena 
of the external world are to be known primarily through 
the senses. Objects or representations of objects should 
be constantly presented, so as to affect the mind and to 
lead it to know new truth. Resemblances and con- 
trasts should be observed, and the judgments formed 
should be correctly expressed. 

9. Following the order of natural development, memory and 
imagination should be cultivated during the entire course. 

The qualities of a good memory are, retentiveness, by 
which ideas are retained in the mind ; and readiness, by 
which the ideas are reproduced when needed. These 
qualities may be gained by (1) observing distinctly, 
attentively, and accurately, and (2) repeating the judg- 
ments formed in the order of observation and with the 
strictest accuracy. Memory depends upon association 
of ideas and attention. Thoughts of visible things are 
held more strongly than those of other tilings. Models, 
diagrams, and illustrations are therefore helpful. The 
principal laws of association are, resemblance ; conti- 
guity in time or place ; cause and effect. The last- 
named law is very important, and should be emphasized 
in the higlier grades. 

The power of imagination needs most careftd guid- 
ance so that the images formed may be pure and re- 



38 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

fined. For the purpose of Laving good materials to 
draw from, the child should come in constant contact 
with objects of beauty, beautiful pictures, refined con- 
duct, and poetical hmguage. The imagination may be 
exercised by practice in writing and drawing, in observ- 
ing beautiful objects and pictures, and in listening to or 
reading good imaginative stories or poems. Simple 
imagination, or the power of combining thoughts of 
parts of different wholes so as to make a new whole, 
may be exercised in the primary school. Invention 
seeks to discover new truths, and should be exercised 
in the higher grades. 

10. Elementary instruction should proceed from the known to 
the unknown. 

Very much is involved in this generally accepted but 
much abused principle. In the primary school, or 
while the perceptive faculties are most active, the 
child's knowledge is gained through the senses, passing 
from the whole to its parts or properties, from ideas 
to words, and from thoughts to sentences. Later, the 
child's knowledge of individual objects is extended to 
a class, facts are formulated into principles, and causes 
are inferred from knowm effects. To follow^ this order 
fully will take much time and patience, and more will 
see7n to be accomplished sometimes by following a re- 
verse order or by leaving out the first steps ; as very 
much more would seem to be accomplished by putting 
all of a given amount of effort into a building and 
neglecting the unseen foundation. 



GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 89 

11. General forms of truth are derived from particulars. 

Rules, definitions, and principles should not be given 
pupils to be memorized without first being taught in 
accordance with the principle that generals are derived 
from particulars. The definition of a noun, for example, 
would be taught by presenting many nouns in sen- 
tences and by having the pupils discover one -or more 
common characteristics of the given nouns. The state- 
ment formed by the pupils may then be corrected in 
respect to form of expression and memorized. 

Rules of arithmetic should be taught by having pupils 
discover the steps of a given process, and subsequently 
give a general statement containing the steps taken in 
their proper order. Rules of grammar are general 
principles which are derived from the observation of 
many examples. 

12. A proper cultivation of the feelings tends to promote 
happiness, to stimulate thought, and to provide good mo- 
tives of action. 

The conduct of little children is guided more by 
feeling than by an intellectual perception of right. 
Cultivation of the feelings consists of (1) repressing 
those emotions wdiich are injurious, as anger, hatred, 
envy, vanity, pride, and all forms of excitement which 
hinder clear thinking and rational wilHng; and (2) 
stimulating the higher emotions, as love of the beauti- 
ful, reverence, pity, respect, sympathy, and love of 
home, companions, and study. The higher feelings are 
promoted more by association and the influence of ex- 
ample than by direct instruction. 

Among the motives to be encouraged in school in 



40 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

the order of merit from lower to higher are, obedi- 
ence to authority, respect for the opinions of school- 
mates, respect for the opinions of the teacher, a sense 
of right and duty, and a desire to serve others for their 
sake. 

13. Sclf-coiitrol belongs primarily to the will, but is applied 

to the thoughts, feelings, and actions. 

There are all stages of self-control, depending upon 
the motive involved, from that which has in it the 
gratification of sense to that in which the welfare and 
happiness of others are involved. The faults of the 
will which sometimes result from improper training are 
indolence, irresolution, impulsiveness, and obstinacy. 
With as few rewards and punishments as possible, by 
gradually widening the circle of the chiUFs freedom, 
and by constantly appealing to his honor and self-re- 
spect, the wise teacher leads liis pupils to control them- 
selves in forming habits of choosing wisely, firmly, and 
quickly between two courses of action, of persevering 
in whatever is undertaken, and of treating others as 
they themselves would be treated. 



GENERAL SUGGESTIONS. 

Graded and Ungraded Schools. 

In order to avoid the danger of misdirected effort, it 
is always well for teachers to know the advantages and 
disadvantages of the circumstances in which they find 
themselves placed. There is no question that the graded 



GENERAL SUGGESTIONS. 41 

school, all things considered, has a great advantage over 
the ungraded school; and yet there are some dangers of 
the graded system which teachers should understand and 
carefully avoid. There is danger, unless care is taken, of 
turning pupils out after the same pattern, of repressing 
tliLnr originality and individuality, and of abusing compe- 
tition. It is impossible, of course, to consider the needs 
and characteristics of each papil of a large school, and 
yet it is not necessary, even in a large school, to oblige 
every pupil to do the same work in the same way as every 
other pupil; neither is it necessary or wise to stimulate 
the exertions of pupils by marking and ranking. The 
school exists for the pupil, and not the pupil for the 
school. System and order are good, but tliey should 
always have in view the common good, and interfere 
with the individual rights of pupils as little as possible. 
Some pupils ai-e physically strong, some are weak; the 
intellects of some pupils are bright, of others dull; 
some pupils have much outside work to do, others have 
none. It is necessary, so far as possible, to fit the re- 
quirements of the school to these various conditions. 
There is little danger of pupils taking advantage of a 
diffeience of requirements or privileges, j^rovided the 
teacher is uniforndy just in his dealings with them, and 
provided the teaching is what it should be. 

There is another danger in graded schools scarcely 
less imminent than those which have been named, and 
that is the danger of not allowing time and opportunity 
for uninterrupted study and independent thinking. A 
large class of forty or fifty pupils often spends five-sixths 
of the school time in recitation, and the little time left 
for study is frequently interrupted by explanations 



42 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

from the teacher; so that the pupils get scarcely more 
than a few minutes at a time for uninterrupted and 
inde})endent study. The remedy in part lies in a divis- 
ion of the class into two sections in some of the studies, 
so as to allow one section to study while the other is 
reciting. 

The disadvantages of ungraded schools are too ap- 
parent to need mention here. The danger is, however, 
that the disadvantages will be unduly magnified in tlie 
minds of teachers of those schools. It is not to he 
expected that the pu})ils of ungraded schools can be as 
carefully trained, or that they can have the same incen- 
tives to study as pupils of graded schools, and yet it is 
wrong to assume that good })rinci[)les of teaching can- 
not be applied in ungraded schools, and that the pupils 
of such schools must necessarily have little interest in 
their studies. The want of time so often spoken of as 
an excuse for poor teaching or no teaching, is obviated 
to some extent by care in classification, and by allowing 
tlie older pupils to recite but two or three times a week 
in some studies. These and other points will be spoken 
of more at length under the head of Classification. 

Purpose and Plan. 

Tlie teacher who wishes to succeed, and who does not 
wish to waste his strength, must have a purpose in all 
that he does, and a distinct and definite plan of action, 
both in general and in particular. Preparation for all 
recitations that need it should be made in providing 
means of teaching and illustration, in laying out the 
next day's lessons, and in giving supplementary infor- 
mation. 



GENERAL SUGGESTIONS. 43 



The Recitation. 



The uses of the recitation are various, depending 
upon the subject and the age of tlie pupils. The prin- 
cipal uses are (1) to discipline the mind, (2) to encour- 
age right methods of study, (3) to awaken interest in 
the subject, (4) to impart information. It is evident 
that these objects, or any one of them, cannot be gained 
to the fullest extent by a simple examination of pupils 
to ascertain what they have learned, especially if the 
examination is conducted by the question and answer 
method, and seeks to bring out only what the pu[)ils 
have learned from a text-book. Neither are the best 
objects of the recitation gained by what may be called 
the "pouring in" or lecture method. Examination and 
talking are useful as a means of encouraging study and 
of giving information ; but something more is needed 
to gain the most important objects of the recitation. 

Teadiing. — The active faculties of pupils should be 
exercised, and true ideas of the different subjects should 
be awakened. These ends can only be accomplished 
by teaching, and by teaching is meant the presenting of 
objects as the occasions of thought and of knowledge. 
Every new subject, and every new phase of a subject, 
should be taught by leading the pupils to think, and to 
discover the facts for themselves. It takes much time 
and patience to teach in this way, and there is often 
great temptation for a teacher to tell the facts instead, 
or to present the words of the book to be learned. The 
teaching of a subject may occupy an entire recitation, 
as when a difficult subject is taken up ; or it may be 
interspersed with other parts of the recitation, as when 



44 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

some part of a lesson is not quite clear to the pupils; 
or it may be clone at the close of a regular recitation in 
preparation of a new lesson which is given out for 
study. 

Brill. — Wlien the knowledge of a fact or principle 
is gained, it is necessary to fix it in tlie mind by much 
repetition. This is called drill, and may occur both in 
study and in recitation. Care should be taken in drill- 
ing, as in teacliing, that all the pupils are actively think- 
ing of the subject in hand, and that there is no obscurity 
of mind or dependence upon others. Answering in 
concert, therefore, is to be largely avoided. Prompt and 
complete answers to all questions should be given by 
individual pu})i!s, the teacher seeing to it that the 
pupils, and not he, do most of the talking. By con- 
stant change of method, by arousing the curiosity of 
the pupils, and by skilful questioning, the attention of 
every pupil is secured. 

Suppleinentary Informatio7i. — In some studies — as 
reading, geography, and history — the giving of infor- 
mati(ni in addition to what is found in the regular text- 
book should be encouraged. The information may be 
gathered from people and books away from the school, 
and from reference-books in the school or public library. 
The teacher should also be ready to give additional in- 
formation and to answer questions. Some of the ques- 
tions may have to "lie upon the table," to be answered 
by teacher or pupils at a subsequent time. 

Topical Study and Recitation. — Instead of the ques- 
tion and answer method quite generally pursued in the 
schools, carefully prepared topics should be used. There 
are many reasons why this form of recitation is to be 



GENERAL SUGGESTIONS. 45 

preferred. In the first place, it is more likely to gain 
the interest and thoughtful attention of pupils than the 
question and answer method, and it enables them to ex- 
press their ideas in entire and connected sentences. If 
the topics are carefully arranged, the facts learned fol- 
low one another in the order of their dependence, and 
are so connected as to enable the pupil to remember 
them. 

The character of tlie recitation in any branch deter- 
mines the character of the pupils' study. If original 
thought and independent ex])ression are encouraged in 
the recitation, the pupils' study will be likely to be 
thoughtful. For this reason also the topical method is 
to be preferred. 

Topical study will be found especially useful for re- 
views. Frequently the pupils themselves will be able 
to prepare the topics, but the teacher should see to it 
that they are arranged in such a way as to give a good 
general view of the subject and to assist the memory. 
Teachers who have not been trained in preparing top- 
ics, would do well to consult the best text-books, in 
which good outlines will be found. 

Attention. — The best uses of the recitation will not 
be gained' unless the close attention of every pupil is 
secured. As soon as the slightest inattention is observed, 
the teacher, by skilful questions and illustrations, should 
bring back the wandering thought to the subject in 
hand. Nor should the teacher be deceived by an atten- 
tive manner on the part of pupils. An earnest gaze 
does not always betoken interest in, or attention to, what 
is said. Members of the class should be read}^ to ask 
questions or to add thoughts of their own as soon as a 



46 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

topic is recited. In all teaching exercises and explana- 
tions, the teacher should occasionally question individ- 
ual pupils to test their knowledge of what is taught or 
explained, and to secure attention. 

Economy of Time. 

The large number of pu[)ils in some schools and the 
number of recitations to be lieard make it a matter of 
great importance to employ the time of the school to 
the best possible advantage. Tins will depend chiefly 
upon the selection and distribution of subjects to be 
taught, — including both course of studies and daily 
programme, — the classification of the school, and the 
wisdom of the teacher in directing the study and reci- 
tation of the pupils. To direct wisely the work of the 
school, the teacher should prepare beforehand, as far as 
possible, for the busy work of young children and for the 
recitation of all classes, especially the plans and illustra- 
tions for teaching. He should discourage too frequent 
calls upon his time to give special assistance to pupils 
between and during recitations, should not repeat the 
answers of pupils given in reply to questions, should 
not, as a rule, call for voluntary answers to questions by 
the raising of hands, should follow as closely' as possible 
a prescribed order of recitations, should discourage 
desultory and irrelevant conversation during any exer- 
cise, and should begin and close a session and pass from 
one recitation to another promptly, without unneces- 
sary formalities. 

Examinations. 

In addition to the examinations which are given 
daily, and which are largely oral, there should be given 



GEXEHAL SUGGESTIONS. 47 

occasionally short written examinations, the principal 
objects of which are (1) to indicate to the teacher how 
much of wliat has been taufrht is retained and what 
needs to be reviewed, and (2) to give pupils practice in 
making clear, concise, and correct statements of what 
they know. These examinations may be given at regu- 
lar intervals or at the close of a general subject, and 
the questions should be made out by the teacher. 

Examinations by the supervisor are given to indicate 
to the teacher the kind of work which is expected to be 
done, and to show to the supervisor whether the teach- 
ing and instruction have been of the right kind. 



48 METHODS OF TEACHING. 



READING. 

To read is to form in the mind ideas and thoughts 
by means of the written or printed signs representing 
them, and to read aloud i^^ to express orally those ideas 
and thoughts so as to be heard^ understood^ mulfelt. In 
reading, as in talking, there is an association of ideas 
witli their proper signs, and in both acts, when the signs 
are perceived, the ideas represented by them are formed. 
The process of learning to read, therefore, is not unlike 
that of learning to talk, and the ways of teaching a 
child to read are in many respects like the ways by 
which he was taught to talk. 

First Steps. — As soon as the child enters school, he 
should be led to ex})ress his thoughts freely and natu- 
rally. The time of two or three reading recitations may 
be profitably spent in making him feel '' at home " in the 
schoolroom. The freedom he acquires in talking will 
be of great assistance to the teacher in every way. Be- 
ginning by the natural method already suggested, the 
teacher first leads the child to think by presenting some 
object or picture. It may be the picture of a man. The 
child recognizes it, and says, in reply to the teacher's 
question, ''Man." The word is then written upon the 
board, and named by the children. In the same way a 
dozen simple words are taught first by occasioning the 
idea, and then having the children give its oral sign or 
name. When these words can be named at sight, let 
the sentences be taught in a similar manner, thus: — 

Teacher. " What is that ? " {Pointing to a hat.) 

Pupils. " That is a hat." 



EEADING. 49 

T. "I will write what you have said." QWriting.^ 
"What am I writing?" 

P. " That is a hat." 

T. " Now read tliis story on the board." 

P. "That is a hat." 

Other sentences, as, " This is a ," " I see a ," 

" Oh I see a ," " Here is a ," " There is a ," 

" I have a ," " You have a ," should be taught 

in the same way, usiiig words which have been taught 
and other words to the number of fifty or sixty. The 
words and sentences shoukl be carefully written upon 
the board many times before the children, who should 
be led to read with as good expression as they talk. 
Talking by the children serves a double object. It not 
only serves as a model for their reading, but also tends 
to increase their interest in and attention to^the read- 
ing lesson. Care should be taken, however, that the 
talk be not aimless, and that the interest of the children 
be not taken away from the subject in hand in their 
eagerness to tell what they know. 

Do not point, or have the children point, at each word 
separately, but have them read the sentence exactly as 
they would speak it. If they do not do this at first, 
ask them a question the answer of which will be in 
the words of the sentence required to be read. For 
example, if the sentence is, " The dog is on the mat," 
and they pause after " is " or " on," ask where the dog 
is, so as to bring out the reply, " The dog is on the mat." 
Then ask them to read the story as they told it to you. 

Much depends, in these first steps, upon the teacher's 
ability to keep the attention of the children, and to have 
each child follow ever}^ jirart of every exercise. This is a 



50 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

difficult matter, especially with a large class. But with 
a dozen pupils or fewer it can be done, if the teacher 
is alert in the use of those expedients which primary 
teachers come to know. When the interest flags, ques- 
tion those who are least attentive, arouse their curiosity 
by writing a new story on the board, praise each honest 
effort, and appeal to the pride of each one to do as well 
as some other one has done. Do not keep the children 
too long in recitation, and constantly vary tlie exercise, 
so that it may not become monotonous or tiresome. 

If any of the words of a new sentence are unknown 
to the pupils, teach those words upon the board before 
the reading of the sentence is attempted. After the 
words are known, and recognized on the board or in the 
book, ask the pupils to read the sentence silently first, 
and then orally. If any pupil still falters, tell him he 
is not ready to read it aloud, and that he must read the 
story or sentence over again to himself. 

The first fifty words taught should represent ideas 
already familiar to tlie children; that is, they should be 
words which are in their spoken vocabular3^ In select- 
ing the words to be read first, reference also should be 
had to phonic resemblance, so tliat when the time for 
analysis comes, the words known can be arranged in 
groups, as man^ fmi^ cat^ rat. It will generally be a safe 
rule to teach from the board or chart all of the words 
and sentences on the first four pages of the primer 
which is to be first placed into the hands of the children. 

When the book is taken, as it may be, in two or three 
months after the children enter school, there will be lit- 
tle difficulty in reading the first few pages, if the words 
and sentences on those pages are thoroughly taught 



READING. 51 

from the board. But when the book is taken, clo not 
give up the board and chart work. Every new lesson 
will have to be taught from the board first, and frequent 
reviews will have to be made in the same way so that 
the words may not be forgotten. Soon after the book 
is taken, analysis of words by sound should be begun, 
first by pronouncing the words very slowly, as m-a-n^ 
then more slowly, until the sounds of the word are sepa- 
rated and their signs are recognized. After this practice 
has continued for some time, new words will be recog- 
nized at sight l)y unconsciously putting the known 
signs into new combinations. For instance, if the words 
man^ mat, cat, rat, are analyzed, and the signs of each 
word are readily recognized, the children will know the 
words can and 7'an without being told them. Slow 
progress must be expected at this stage, and great pa- 
tience must be exercised until the children are able to 
analyze without l^elp all the words they have learned. 
Phonic drill may be given for the purpose also of secur- 
ing clearer enunciation. 

Analysis by letter need receive no special attention. 
The s])elling of words will be learned by degrees after 
the first half-year, and before the close of the first year 
the pupils will be able to spell orally the words they 
read, without much time being spent in teaching them 
the names of the lettei'S. In oral spelling during the first 
and second years it would be well to have the pupils 
"spell by sound" first, then by letter, and lastly give 
the name of the silent letter or letters. 

Transition. — To pass from sciipt to print will not 
be found difficult if care is taken not to present new 
or unfamiliar words in the new form. If the learner 



52 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

has begun in script, tlie transition will of course be 
made when the book is taken. If it is found at all diffi- 
cult for him to read the printed w^ords readil}^, let the 
two forms, script and print, be placed together upon the 
board and read. After two or three lessons of this kind 
there will be no difficulty. After the book is taken, let 
the reading of both forms go on together throughout 
the course. 

SILENT READING. 

Much of the reading we do after we leave school is 
done silently. We should therefore encourage the j)U- 
pils to read silently in the best way. There may be a 
regular exercise for the purpose in which pupils are 
given a piece to read silently. It is also done in a reg- 
ular reading recitation when members of the class read 
silently while one of the class reads orally. The main 
object to be secured in these exercises is to get the pu- 
pils to think of what they are reading. This is done 
by questioning with the view of having them reproduce 
the thought in their own words. Put into the hands of 
the pupils a piece which they have not seen before, and 
give them time to read it over carefully once. Then 
have them lay the piece aside and talk or write about 
what they have read. Such exercises will cultivate the 
power of attention and lead the pupils to gather quickly 
the thoughts expressed on the printed page. Exercise 
in silent reading is also had in preparing the regular 
reading lesson. 

ORAL READING. 

Objects. — From our definition we learn that the 
object of oral reading is " to be heard, understood, and 



BEADING. 53 

felt." The good teacher of reading keeps this object in 
niiud in all of his teaching, and makes his pupils feel 
that when they read anything, it is for the purpose of 
making others understand and feel what is read. But 
they cannot do this without themselves understanding 
and feeling what they read. In other words, the reader 
should not direct the words he utters to the page of the 
book, but to a listening audience. There should be a 
constant effort on the reader's part to enter into the 
feelings and thought of the author. If there is a 
description of natural scenery to be read, the reader 
should as far as possible form the mental picture of the 
described scene. If there is a conversation between 
two people to be read, the states and thoughts of the 
speakers should be shared by the reader. If from the 
beginning the pupil is constantly taught to feel and 
think while he reads, the chief obstacle to good-reading 
will be overcome. 

If, now, we analyze the general purpose of reading, to 
ascertain what particular ends are to be sought in teach- 
ing reading, we may find three principal ends, or objects; 
viz., (1) naturalness of expression, (2) correct pronun- 
ciation, (3) fluency. 

Naturalness of Expression. — To read naturally is 
to read as one should talk, for the reason that in both 
acts there is an eifort on the part of the speaker to be 
understood and felt. In reading, as in talking, the 
thought precedes the expression, and if the thought of 
the writer is readily understood by the reader, and the 
words are quickly recognized, there ought to be as little 
difficulty in reading naturally as there is in talking natu- 
rally. How shall we lead the pupil, first, to think the 



54 NET HODS OF TEACHING. 

thoughts expressed in print or script, and, second]}^ to 
express those thoughts to others so as to be understood 
and felt? The conditions mentioned under the general 
head of "Object of Oral Reading" should be always 
observed. Lead the pupil to think and feel what he 
reads by constant questioning. Question him before he 
begins to read a given lesson. Question him after he 
has read a paragraph or a sentence, or whenever you 
think his mind is wandering from the subject. Let the 
questions be such as will encourage him to enter into 
the feelings and thoughts of the writer, and to become 
interested in what is to follow. Sometimes the ques- 
tions may be such as will oblige the- pupil to answer in 
his own words, and sometimes they may be such as will 
allow the answer to be in the words of the book, to 
serve as a model for expression in reading. 

But to know the thought expressed in any sentence, 
the pupil must know what each word means. Dithcult 
and unfamiliar words, therefore, should be taught befoi-e 
the pupil reads either silently or orally. It is true that 
the meaning of words is known, especially nice shades 
ot* meaning, by observing their use in spoken and 
written language ; but in forming habits of correct ex- 
pression, it is well to know the use of all the words 
which are to be read. Pupils who are allowed to halt 
before every unknown or difficult word, waiting to spell 
out or to be told the word, cannot give much attention 
to the thought to be expressed. Difficult words of a 
new lesson should be taught at the close of every lesson, 
objectively or by familiar illustrations. The following 
words, from a single page of a third reader, could be 
taught in this way : distant, stretched, engmeer, ivhistled^ 



KEADINGo 65 

notice^ gladness. After these words have been taiiglit, 
they may be used in sentences by both teacher and 
pupils, and wiitten upon the board for special study. 
In preparing the next day's lesson, the pupils will write 
out sentences of their own, putting in the words which 
have been taught, and other difficult words. 

Correct Pronunciation. — Words may be very natU" 
rally read, but if they are not correctl}^ pronounced, 
they may not be understood, or the attention of the 
hearers may be diverted from the thought of the author 
to the blunders of the reader. It is necessary, therefore, 
to teach the pupils the correct pronunciation of words. 

Correct pronunciation is gained by imitation, by cor- 
rection, and from the dictionarv. Children of all ages 
learn to pronounce by imitation, and sometimes a bad 
example is more powerful than that which is set before 
them in the schoolroom. Constant correction in all of 
the oral exercises of the school, supplemented by special 
lessons in connection with the reading lessons, may do 
much to counteract the influence of careless or ignorant 
companions outside of school hours. The difficult words 
of every new lesson should be pronounced by the teacher 
if the pupils are young. Older pupils should learn to 
use the dictionary for correct pronunciation. 

Pronunciation matches, by "pronouncing down," or 
by choosing sides, may help to create an interest in the 
subject, and encourage study. Difficult words or words 
most frequently mispronounced may be placed upon the 
blackboard from time to time and practised upon. The 
following list is given as an example : — 

Lenient, tiny, exhaust, finance, contents, carbine, debris, depot, 
jugTiiar, Hen, squalor, mitten, often, naive, beneatli, oaths, truths, 



56 METHODS 01^ TEACHING. 

sacrilegiou.s, bronchitis, nape, extant, isolated, suite, coadjutor, 
comely, deficit, exhausted, matinee, gondola, cognomen, tnade, 
epicurean, vagaries, precedence, complaisant, decade, lyceum, 
notable, heinous. 

Clear Envnelation. — One may read naturally and 
pronounce the words correctly and still fail to give that 
clearness and distinctness of utterance which are neces- 
sary to make the expression agreeable to the ear. In 
other words, we cannot always take the enunciation of 
words spoken in conversation as a standard for reading. 
Sounds of words are frequently ruu into each other or 
omitted altogether. Wrong and impure tones are used, 
or the tones are uttered in a drawling manner. To cor- 
I'ect these common faults of speech, and the not uncom- 
mon dialects, both foreign and native, which are heard 
in many schools, vocal exercises should be given dail}', 
either in connection with the reading lesson or as a 
general exercise. Purity of tone and distinctness of 
articulation are the two objects to be sought in these 
exercises. Arrange carefully a few short exercises 
which have in view one or the other of these objects, 
and encourage the pu})ils to practise upon them out of 
school. Correct, by individual and concert practice, 
impurities of tone, such as the nasal, guttural, and pec- 
toral quality. The broad vowel sounds, either alone or 
in Avords, should be practised upon to secure jmre tones. 
In such exercises see that the jaw is used freely, and 
that a free action of the vocal organs is not hindered 
by a poor position of the body. 

To secure distinct articulation, have the pupils prac- 
tise upon those exercises which will give an easy action 
of the lips, tongue, and palate. Careful analysis of 



EEADI^^G. 57 



words by sound will be found to be useful in securing 
distinct articulation. Exercises like the following may 
be used for a similar purpose. Other exercises will be 
found in the various school readers. 

1. Pronounce clearly, moving the jaw freely, the 
following: — 

ah e 00 aw 

o a 1 oy ow 

Pronounce the same with the sound of k ; as, kah, ke, 
etc. 

2. Pronounce vowel sounds: — 

a, a, a, a ; e, e ; i, i ; o, 6, o ; ii, ii, u ; oi, ou. 

Pronounce the same with the sound of k : kci, kc(\ 
etc. 

3. Practise upon the following until the action of 

tlie organs of speecli is accui-ate and energetic. Do not 

use much breath in the exercise, and let the touch of 

the tongue, lips, and palate be of the shortest possible 

duration. ^ i i i 

t p k d b g 

at ap ak ad ab ag 

et, etc. 

it, etc. 

4. Pepeat at first slowly and then rapidly : — 

He talks in earnest. 
On either side is an ocean. 
She sought shelter. Shelter sought she. 
The railroad ran directly across the rapid river. 
"With a thick thimble, Tlieresa Thornton thrusts thirty-three 
threads through the thick cloth. 

Skilful pilots gain their reputation from storms and tempests. 
Round the rough rock the ragged rascal ran. 
Shoes and socks shock Susan. 



58 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

Pronounce distinctly: — 

Help(i^), elf^^^ else(«), felt^^^, child, milk, lamp, tent, dance, ink, 
sharp, task, health, AVelsh, Welch, nymph, dreampt, ninth, strength, 
depth, steps, apt, fifth, fifes, left, broths, wasp, post, looks, act, 
alps, gulped, gulfs, twelfth, lamps, stamped, triumplis, tempts, 
tenths, against, prints, lengths, ringst, harps, warped, serfs, eartlis, 
first, droopst, adepts, fifths, laughst, rafts, lookst, facts, asps, posts, 
desks, satst, patched, lookst, acts, helpst, twelfths, mid'st, halt'st, 
filched, limp'st, attemp'stp want'st, flinched, precincts, thinkst, 
sixths, texts. 

The quality of tone and articulation often depends 
upon the control or management of the breath. For 
this purpose breathing exercises such as are given else- 
where,^ will be found helpful, especially to older pupils. 

Fluency. — By fluency is meant the abilit}^ to recog- 
nize quickly and to pronounce readily the words as 
they are seen in reading. This can be gained only 
by constant and long-continued practice in easy reading 
at sight. 

Sight-Reading. — In addition to the regular reading- 
lesson, which may be short, there should be frequent 
practice in reading at sight by pupils of all grades. 
Four or five pages may be read daily at sight in 
almost every grade ; but care should be taken that 
the reading of this kind be sufficientl}^ simple for the 
pupils. The regular reading lesson may be quite difti- 
cult, that is, it may contain several new and difficult 
words which should be taught in the way indicated 
above ; but in the siglit-readiug there should be few 
words not previously known, the object being to accus- 
tom the pupils to recognize the words quickly as they 

1 p. 284. 



READING. 59 

come to them. The sight-reading should not be 
''studied" or read silently beforehand unless it is too 
difficult to be read easily at sight. If there are some 
words which the })upils have not met before, they should 
be taught before the reading begins ; and if the reader 
still finds difficulty in reading the sentence or paragrapli, 
it may be read silently before it is read orally. 

To encourage tliought in reading, it is always well to 
follow the reading by questioning. Let the questions 
be such, however, as will oblige the pupils to give long 
answers and to give them in their own words. In the 
lower classes, well-graded reading-books will be found 
best for sight-reading, altliough there are some simply 
written books of other kinds admirably fitted for the 
purpose. In the higher classes, voyages, books of 
travel, histories, and biographies will be found useful 
not only for sight-reading, but also for the purpose of 
interesting pupils in geography and history. Occasion- 
ally it may be found well to allow the pupils to select 
pieces ' or stories to be read to the entire school. 
Such practice will give them confidence and help 
them to feel that their object in reading orally is to 
interest others. 

Reg-ular Reading- Lessons. — Important as sight- 
reading is for securing the principal objects of oral 
i-eading, the use of the regular reading lesson should 
not be lost sight of. Unlike reading to be read at 
sight, the books for assigned lessons should be some- 
what difficult for the pupils. The advantages of having 
regular reading lessons a little in advance of the pupil's 
comprehension are, (1) new words are added to the 
pupils' vocabulary, (2) the thought of the pupils is 



60 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

raised to a higher plane. If all that the pupils read 
is so simple as to be wholly within their comprehen- 
sion, they are not likely to learn many words new to 
them, and the tliouglit expressed is so simple as to call 
for little mental exertion. It is a mistake to suppose 
that children like that only which is simple and easy. 
It is true tliat, by want of proper exercise, their minds 
may become incapable of much effort; but with careful 
training children may read understandingly and come 
to like the best of our English classics, both in prose 
and poetry. It will be found well in reading such 
literature to encourage the pupils to give their idea of 
the meaning of a figure of speech or of a difficult phrase 
or sentence, and gradually, by judicious assistance, lead 
them to discover its full meaning and force. Such ex- 
ercise will be found as interesting as guessing a puzzle 
or working out a problem in arithmetic. Occasionally, 
after a chapter or poem has been read, the pupils will 
find it profitable and agreeable to write an abstract of 
it in their own words. 

Preparation of Lesson. — It cannot be expected that 
very young children will "• study " a reading lesson to 
any extent. The most that they can do is to practise 
in copying the words and sentences of their lessons 
from the blackboard. Neither can older pupils pre- 
pare a reading lesson in the right wa}^ unless they are 
shown how to prepare it, or unless the recitation leads 
them to do it. The character of the recitation in every 
branch of study determines the character of the study. 
This is especially true in reading. Just before the read- 
ing lesson begins, some or all of the class should be 
called upon to give the substance of the lesson in their 



READING. 61 

0W41 words. This exercise, if rightly conducted, fur- 
nishes practice in oral expression, and at the same time 
encourages pupils to find out the story or the tiiought 
of the author before they come into the class. Again, 
at the close of the recitation, the teacher should teacli 
the most difficult words of the next lesson, and if liis 
pupils be young, ask them to bring into the class writ- 
ten sentences of their own construction containing the 
w^ords thus taught. By this practice, the pupils will 
become more familiar with the difficult words of the 
lesson and at the same time add to their vocabulary. 
The sentences should be glanced at or looked over by 
the teacher, to see that no mistakes are made in the use 
of words, and to encourage pupils to write the sentences. 

To induce the older pupils to consult the reference- 
books of the school librarj', inquiry should be made in 
recitation for facts connected with any name or place 
mentioned in the text, and for synonyms, derivation, 
and definition of words. 

The greatest value of questioning as an incentive to 
study will not be seen if it is done wholly by the 
teacher. After a paragraph or sentence has been 
read, the pupils themselves should be encouraged to 
question the reader in regard to its general meaning or 
concerning any part of it. Thus there may be called 
for the definitions and s3aionyms of difficult words, 
explanation of figures, location of places, facts about 
persons and past events mentioned in the text, and 
such other information as the ingenuity and previous 
study of the questioners will suggest. Pupils in pre- 
paring for questioning will be likely to be more partic- 
ular and earnest than in preparing simply to answer 



62 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

questions of the teacher. Moreover, questioning by 
the pupils greatly adds to the interest of a reading 
exercise. 

Principles. — The pu})ils up to the age of twelve or 
fourteen years are learning to think as they read, and 
to acquire the art of reading so as to be understood 
and felt. Up to this time nothing has been said of 
pitch, empliasis, or any of the principles which underlie 
good reading. When the art has been acquired to a 
tolerable degree of proficieNiicy, the okler })npils may 
begin to learn principles which may aid them in under- 
standing and reading difficult or obscure passages. In- 
stead, however, of presenting the rules and principles 
ready made, they should be taught as in other depart- 
ments of study. For example, if it is desired to teach 
emphasis^ let the pupils read the following sentence with 
the desire to tell how the horse trots : " The black horse 
trots rapidly." Again, ask the pupils to read the same 
sentence so as to tell which horse trots rapidly. A few 
questions will bring out the idea that certain words 
were uttered with more force than others, or in a dif- 
ferent ^\'dy. They may be told that such words were 
emphasized, and be asked to emphasize other words. 
When they have well in mind the idea of emphasis, 
lead them to discover the principle of correct emphasis. 
For example, place upon the blackboard a number of 
sentences like the following : " John is here," " Thomas 
is here," " We are all here," and ask the pupils to read 
them naturally. After they find that "Thomas" and 
"all " are emphasized, lead them to see that those words 
express new ideas, or ideas not previously expressed. 
After a sufficient number of examples of this kind have 



HEADING. 63 

been read, they Avill give a rule of their own making : 
^' Words expressing new ideas are emphasized." In 
the same way develop the rule that " Words express- 
ing important ideas are emphasized," and also the rule 
that " Words expressing contrasted ideas are empha- 
sized." By combination, the general rule is formed: 
'•' Words expressing new, important, and contrasted 
ideas are emphasized." 

The next point to biing out may be the kinds of em- 
phasis and the various terms used to express them. The 
pupils, by reading understandingly and feelingly several 
sentences like the following, will see that some words 
are emphasized by using more force, some by making a 
pause after the words, some by raising or dropping the 
voice, and some by prolonging the words : — 

T assure you that the charge is false. 

The boy ! oh, Avhere was he ? 

One^ if by land^, and two^ if by sea^. 

The day is c-o-l-d and d-a-r-k and d-r-e-a-r-y. 

After sufficient practice of this kind, the names of the 
kinds of emphasis may be given : (1) stress, (2) pause, 
(3) inflection, (4) time. 

It will be interesting and useful for the pupils to 
apply the knowledge of emphasis which they have 
gained to passages in their reading lessons. Take, for 
example, the lines, — « 

" Scarcely a man is now alive 
AVho remembers that famous day and year." 

Nine out of ten pupils would at first emphasize the 
words "day " and "year." Application of their rule- of 



64 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

emphasis will teach them that " remembers " is the word 
to be emphasized. 

Pupils in the higher grades are much inclined to 
emphasize too many words — so many as to destroy 
the effect of emphasis where it belongs. To prevent 
this fault, application of the rule of emphasis should be 
constantly made, and the reader should be asked why a 
particular emphasis is made. If, for example, a pupil 
reads the sentence, " Put a ring on his hand and shoes 
on his feet," and emphasizes, as he is likely to, rm^, 
hand., shoes, and feet, the application of the rule will 
lead him in a second reading not to emphasize hand 
Rud feet as if they expressed important ideas. 

The same course should be pursued in teaching other 
facts, relating to quality of voice, movement, pitch, force, 
and inflection. The teacher should first gather such 
facts as may be thought useful, from reading or other 
books, and then teach the facts by first presenting the 
examples and leading the pupils to deduce the facts or 
principles from the examples given. 

Cultivation of Taste. — It is the privilege as well 
as the duty of the teacher to do much toward elevating 
the reading tastes of the young. In no way can the 
extensive reading of the worthless and demoralizing 
literature which now fills the shops be more effec- 
tually checked than by creating a desire and demand 
for something better. Good methods of teaching will 
do much in this direction ; for the pupil in being led 
to think as he reads, finds positive pleasure in reading 
thoughtful books, and having learned to read such books 
easily at sight, he is no longer attracted solely by the 
excitement of the narrative, or by the simplicity of the 



KEADING. Qd 

language, but is willing and glad to read the best books 
Avitljin his reach. Moreover, the constant use of good 
supplementary reading in school has given him a taste 
for good reading and a distaste for what is worthless 
and bad. 

In addition to the diiect influence which is exerted 
in the reading classes, the teacher should direct the 
outside reading of the pupils by suggesting good books 
in all departments. Every high and grammar school 
should have a carefully selected library from which 
books can be taken home by the pupils. If there is no 
library connected with the school, the teacher should 
suggest to the pupils what books of the [)ublic or circu- 
lating library will be best for them to read. The geog- 
raphy, history, observation, and information lessons 
will afford a good opportunity for the teacher to sug- 
gest books or periodicals from which the pupils may 
learn other interesting facts in connection with the sub- 
jects studied. 

Frequently, or as often as once a week, time should 
be taken to talk with the pupils about what they have 
read out of school, occasionally calling for an abstract 
or synopsis of a book when completed, and their 
opinion of it. 



66 METHODS OF TEACHING. 



WRITING. 



The art of writing legibly should be acquired as early 
in the school life of the child as possible ; first, because 
it is a direct assistance to the other work of the school, 
and secondly, on account of the shortness of time dur- 
ing which many cliildren attend school. 

Appliances. — Duiing the first year there should be 
provided ruled slates, and sharpened^ slate-pencils at 
least four inches in length. The lines for the small 
letters may be one-fourth of an inch apart, and even 
wider for work of the first few weeks. After the 
first 3^ear, paper and lead-pencils should be provided in 
addition to the slates and slate-pencils. The spaced 
lines may be, during the second year, three-sixteenths 
of an inch apart for the small letters. The proper 
height of capitals and tall letters should also be indi- 
cated in the ruling. During the next two years, or as 
long as spaced lines are thought to be necessary, the 
lines for the small letters may be a little more than one- 
eighth of an inch apart. Copy-books of a suitable kind 
should also be provided as early as the second year, and 
pen and ink at the beginning of the third year in 
school. Blackboard and crayons will be found indis- 
pensable by the teacher, and writing-charts and card- 
board copies will be of great assistance. 

Grading-. — In graded schools all the teaching exer- 
cises in writing should be given to the entire school, 
and much of the practice should be carried on together. 
Special assistance, however, will have to be given to a 
few of the poorer writers during the lesson. Opportu- 



WRITING. • 67 

nity should be given these pupils to take extra time 
fur practice upon a lesson, and tliey should be advised 
to practise out of school hours. 

It may be found advantageous in writing, as in draw- 
ing, to divide the ungraded school into two sections 
both for teaching and for practice. At least two uni- 
form lessons a week should be given each section. At 
other times the pupils might go on in their copy-book, 
independent of each other; but at no time should undue 
haste or scribbling be allowed. 

Objects and 3Ieaiis. — Legibility first and rapidity 
afterwards are the ends to be reached in writing, and 
they are reached only by constant practice either in 
imitating good models or in following rules which have 
been taught. 

Words and Sentences. — The first copies for imitation 
may be the words and sentences which have been taught 
and placed upon tlie board in the reading exercise. 
The earlier efforts of the childien in writing will be 
very crude, and it may take many trials before any 
appreciable progress is made ; but with the help of the 
teacher in making the copy upon the shite and in 
guiding the hands of the children, it will be found 
that easy words like man, on^ and eat will soon be 
made so as to be recognized. It will be well to 
encourage the children at first by giving for copies 
words which they can write the best, leaving the more 
difficult words until they have a good command of the 
hand. 

The copies upon the blackboard and slate should be 
made in the presence of the children, that they may 
know how the letters are formed. In order to have the 



68 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

form of the letters clear and distinct, the copies shoidd 
be written at first in a large hand, and the writing of 
the children should also be large, as indicated by a 
wide rnling. Time may be saved by placing cardboard 
copies before the chiklren instead of writing copies 
upon the board or slate ; but this should be done only 
after the words have been written, in the children's 
presence. 

After the first year the children may be able to write 
without a copy, and 3^et the work of imitation must go 
on until all of the letters are accurately formed. Much 
depends upon the teacher's ability to write well before 
his pu})ils. While it is true that a poor writer may, by 
substituting the copies of others, lead his pupils to 
write well, it should be understood that a teacher who 
can present the proper form for imitation has a great 
advantage over one wdio cannot write Avell, or who has 
to write his copies out of sight of the children. 

Single Letters. — While the copying of words and 
sentences is required in the low^er grades, drill upon 
single letters should also be carried on in regular order, 
as indicated in the "Course of Studies." The aim in 
these exercises is accuracy. No new letter should be 
taken up until the preceding letters are made with 
almost perfect accuracy. For example, the children 
are given i to write during the first half-j^ear. Let 
them practise upon it a little ever}^ day until there can 
be no improvement, and then they may take the next 
letter, u. This practice will lead them into that control 
Avhich is necessary to the good writer, and will give a 
good foundation for subsequent work. 

Position. — During the first two years, or while the 



WRITING. 69 

children are confined to the use of the pencil in writing, 
due attention is given to position ; but as we do not 
wish to make the difficulties too great in the beginning, 
we seek more to secure perfect forms than perfect move- 
ments. As soon as the pen is taken, however, special 
attention should be given to (1) position of tlie body, 
(2) position of the paper or book, (3) position and 
movement of the hand and arm. 

Different positions are recommended by different 
teachers, and doubtless each has its advantages. The 
following positions are suggested as having few objec- 
tions and as being useful for the purpose designed. 

It should be said, however, that, whether these or 
other positions are taken, there should be uniformity 
throughout the course. 

The face nearly front, the left side of the body being 
slightl}^ turned toward tlie desk ; the left hand above or 
on the uj)per part of the i)aper or copy-book, and the 
body slightly bent ; the paper or copy-book in an ob- 
lique position so as to allow room for the right forearm 
to rest upon the desk ; the i)en and holder held between 
the thumb and first two fingers so as to allow" the freest 
movement of the fingers, the hokler resting upon the 
forefinger between tlie first and second joints and point- 
ing nearly over the right shoulder; the wrist slightly 
raised from the desk, the third and fourth fingers rest- 
ing lightly upon the paper. These, or some other 
equally good positions, should be taught at the beginning 
of the third year or when the pen is first taken, and the 
pupils should be constantly corrected until a correct 
habit is established. Some teachers find the tracing- 
book helpful during the first few weeks of pen-and-ink 



70 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

practice, or wliils tlie pupils are learning a good posi- 
tion and movement of the hand. 

Movements. — Movement practice should be begun as 
soon as the pen is taken, and continued until there is a 
free and easy movement of the fingers and arm. In the 
early practice, the movements should be made with a 
pencil or a dry pen. First show by example what the 
arm movement is, and have the pupils practise on slides, 
with the fingers fixed and in a good position. The 
slides may be made by the direction " forward — back," 
given slowly. After some facility is gained in this sim- 
ple arm movement explain as before, by example, the 
finger movement, and have the pupils practise it, first 
by bending and straightening the fingers without toucli- 
ii]g pencil or pen to paper. Then with the dry pen 
upon paper, combine the slide and the simple up-and- 
down finger movement in the folloAving exercise : — 



Give slowly the direction '"slide — down," by which 
the movement is guided, and after some practice let tlie 
same exercise be written with ink. 

To secure accuracy of finger and arm movements, 
practice in parallel lines, both curved and straight, in all 
directions, will be found useful. These and other 
exercises for securing freedom and accuracy of move- 
ment may be found in the copy-books, and should be 
practised daily for the first two or three j^ears after ink 
is taken, or until the pupils can write easily with the 
combined arm and finger movement. As soon as the 



WKITING. 71 

pen is taken, and in all subsequent writing, care should 
be taken to have the pupils hold the pen very lightly in 
the hand, so as to make smooth and light lines. A 
firmer grasp may be allowed for pupils who have an 
unsteady hand, but even these should be encouraged to 
hold the pen lightly as soon as they are able to write 
rapidly. 

Coijy-Boolc. — In addition to practice in writing from 
copies made by the teacher, and in connection with the 
language lessons, there should be throughout a greater 
part of the course, copy-book practice at least three 
times a week. The copy should be taught from the 
blackboard before practice is begun, each principle or 
letter being made carefully, and the correct and incor- 
rect forms being pointed out. Every pupil should be 
provided with paper or blank-book for practice, and 
when a fair degree of accuracy is attained, the letter, 
word, or sentence may be written in the copy-book. In 
usin^ the copy-book, lead the pupils to imitate the copy 
and not their own writing. To encourage thoughtful- 
ness and care in imitating the cop^^, it may be well to 
have all the pupils write the same line at the same time, 
and when the line is Avritten, to compare each letter 
they have made with the copy. Sometimes interest is 
increased by criticising each other's writing, marking 
slightly with lead-pencil the errors. 

Special and separate attention should be given to the 
shape, size, slant, distance apart, and shade of letters. 
The fiist four points should be attended to from the 
first. The shading should receive no attention until 
the pupils are able to form the letters and join them 
together with almost perfect accuracy. Generally it 



72 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

takes tAvo years of practice with pen and ink before the 
pupils are ready to give attention to shading. 

The rule in regard to the relative height of letters 
may be understood and folloAved by pupils as early r.s 
the second year in school. During the tirst four years 
the pupils may have the aid of spaced lines to guide 
them in making letters of proper and uniform height. 
This assistance should be gradually removed until 
equally good work is done without the lines. 

The slant should be about fifty-two degrees. For 
board and slate work, the proper slant may be ascer- 
tained by drawing a parallelogram, thus, — 



four parts high, three parts wide. The diagonal ah 
will be nearly the proper slant. 

The proper distancing of letters and the proper shad- 
ing can be gained only by iiuitation and practice. In- 
deed, this is true of all good writing. Practice in 
imitation of good models for accuracy, and afterwards 
practice for rapidity, should be encouraged both in and 
out of school. For "home study," practice in writing 
is especially useful, as no possible harm can be done by 
injudicious assistance. 

Pupils should not be allowed to repeat their faults 
until they become a habit. To avoid this they should 
be led to observe closely correct forms and to detect 
any faulty line which may be made. First present a 



WELTING. 73 

correct form of the letter upon the board and call atten- 
tion to the position or direction of its parts. Then ask 
one or more of the pupils to make the same letter upon 
the board for the inspection and criticism of the rest. 
In this wa}^ they will be prepared to criticise and cor- 
rect their own writing in the copy-books. 

Rate. — In all the writing of the first few years, let 
slow^ness be encouraged. The child who can write 
slowly, can be taught to write well, and only when he 
can form every letter accurately without a coj)y, should 
rapidity be encouraged or allow^ed. For this reason 
every written exercise, whether it be in spelling, lan- 
guage, copy-book, or examination, should be an exercise 
in penmanship. No careless writing should be allowed 
to remain upon the slate, and all carelessly written ex- 
ercises upon paper should be destroyed and rewritten. 
By the fifth or sixth year in school, the pupils, if they 
have been properly taught in the lower grades, should 
be prepared to quicken their movements in writing. 
Practice in rapidity may be had first upon single letters 
and words, and afterwards upon sentences, until by the 
eighth year the pupils will be able not only to write 
well but with a good degree of rapidity. 

It is expected that book-keeping, and the writing of 
compositions and examination-papers, wdll afford suffi- 
cient practice for writing in the ninth year. 



74 METHODS OF TEACHING. 



SPELLING. 

Objects. — Li teaching spelling we have to lead the 
pupils to arrange in proper order the letters of a word. 
In addition to this, other forms of expression should be 
taught incidentally, as use of capital letters, punctua- 
tion, possessive forms, common contractions and abbre- 
viations, division into syllables, pronunciation and dia- 
critical mai'ks. 

The correct form of words is learned by observation 
and practice. Accurate habits of observation should 
be encouraged as early as possible, and opportunity 
given for much practice in writing. In the first year 
there should be daily practice in copying words and 
sentences from the board and from cards. In the 
second year, and afterwards, there may be some prac- 
tice in copying from the reader. Instead of allowing 
pupils to copy by writing only a letter or two after 
each inspection of the copy, lead them to get an accu- 
rate picture of one or more words before writing. 
Write a word or sentence upon the board, ask the 
children to look at it carefully, then to w^rite it without 
looking at the copy, and lastly to see if their word or 
sentence is written correctly, and, if not, to erase and 
rewrite it. Lead them to do the same in copying from 
books. 

Study. — Pupils should be taught early in the course 
how to study a spelling lesson. It will be well to have 
the spelling lesson copied plainly upon the board by 
the teacher, and when the time for studying the lesson 
comes, to have the pupils copy the words upon their 



SPELLI^'G. 75 

slates, as has been described. AVhenever a mistake has 
been made, instead of having them erase and correct 
a part of the word, have them erase the entire word 
and rewrite it. Some practice of this kind under the 
teacher's direction will lead the pupils to form in the 
mind correct pictures of the words at a single glance, 
and enable them to study profitably alone. For the 
younger pupils, draw a line through the silent letters, 
and encourage them to do the same in copying and in 
writing from dictation. This will lead them to notice 
the silent letters. 

Recitation. — The spelling lesson may be recited 
orally or in writing. For obvious reasons, the writing 
of words is far more useful than spelling orally by 
letter. As soon as the pupils can write without copy, 
or after the first year, the words and sentences of the 
spelliiJg lesson should be written from dictation, in 
books provided for the purpose. In the latter part of 
the first year, spelling "by sound " and by letter should 
be practised. In the second and third years there may 
be some oral spelling ; but generally with the exception 
of spelling reviews and recreations, the lessons should 
be written. 

During the first three years (he school readers may 
be used as text-books for spelling. Afterwards regular 
spelling text-books should be used, time being allowed 
for practice upon words from other sources. Sometimes 
the spelling lesson may consist of the words misspelled 
in the written examination papers and compositions; 
sometimes the technical words of other lessons may be 
given, or the difficult words of two or more paragraphs 
of the reader, or a review of the difficult common words, 
such as the following: — 



76 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

Knife, money, shoes, ladies, which, whose, where, there, their, 
piece, would, watch-chain, lead-pencil, window-curtain, yours, 
comb, crayon, door-key, floor, believe, guess, through, threw, 
dropped, walked, laughed, aunt, father, ought, ache, dozen, fruit, 
Wednesday, beautiful, flowers, sugar, color, collar, brother's, baby's, 
whole, pair, eight, half, twelve, tough, button, caught, neighbor, 
minute. 

These are among the words which cliilclreii should 
write correctly in sentences before they leave the pri- 
mary school ; but it will be found that not all grammar 
school pupils will be able to write even half of the in 
correctly, without being reviewed. 

The words and sentences should be generally dictated 
by the teacher, and, if possible, but once. In this way 
the power of attention is cultivated, and time is saved. 
In giving out words to spell it is well sometimes for 
the teacher or the pupils to give a sentence containing 
each word or, in the higher grades, to give synonyms or 
definitions. Sometimes it may be well for the pupils to 
give out the words of a lesson from memory ; but no 
word should be spelled whose use or meaning is not 
understood. 

All misspelled words should be rewritten correctly 
and reviewed frequently. The lessons should be of 
varied length, depending upon the character of the 
words. Sometimes a long lesson of easy words or of 
words spelled alike may be assigned ; in which case the 
hardest words of the lesson only will be given out. In 
no case should haste or carelessness in writing be al- 
lowed. 

Derivations, synonyms, and definitions should be 
learned in connection with the spelling lesson in the 
higher grades, and may be recited at the time of, or 



SPELLING. 77 

after dictation of the words. In these classes the dic- 
tionary should be in constant use by the pupils. Small 
dictionaries in the desks of older pupils, and one large 
dictionary for reference, on the teacher's table, will be 
found necessary for the preparation of reading and spell- 
ing lessons. 

Homonyms in sentences should be frequently given, 
and in the higher grades, words derived from the same 
root should be selected and explained. The force of the 
various prefixes and suffixes may also be taught in the 
same way. Syllabication should be taught in connec- 
tion with the regular spelling lesson, the syllables being 
separated by short spaces and not by hyphens. In oral 
spelling the syllables may be indicated by slight pauses, 
without pronouncing each syllable. 

Rules. — It is not well to burden the pupil with 
many rules for spelling, tlie exceptions being frequently 
so numerous as to defeat the end sought. Yet there 
are some rules which may be profitably learned; as, for 
example, the rules for joining suffixes to words ending 
in y and e^ and rules for the formation of the plural of 
nouns. These, and other rules which have few excep- 
tions, may be of some assistance. 

Methods of Examining- and Correcting. — In small 
classes, and with young pupils, the teacher should 
examine and correct each slate or paper. Pupils may 
be allowed to correct tlieir own exercises, rewriting the 
misspelled words upon a separate paper. Or pupils 
may exchange slates or papers, and examine each 
other's exercise, the right of appeal being allowed when 
the exercise is returned. Instead of slate or paper, it 
would be well to have each pupil provided with a spell- 



78 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

ing blank-book. From the lists of misspelled words the 
teacher should occasionally prepare review lessons. 

To avoid temptation, which might exist if the papers 
were examined by the same pupils every day, or if the 
pupils simply exchanged their papers, it is well to have 
two or three different directions for passing the papers 
to be examined. At the proper time the teacher may 
say, ^'pass back," "front," "to the left," or "to the 
right." If the order to "pass front" is given, the pu- 
pils in front will immediately stand and pass their books 
to the pupils in the rear. All the rest will pass their 
books to the pupils directly in front of them. If the 
order to "pass back "is given, the pupils in the rear 
will carr}^ their papers to the front, and all the rest will 
pass their papers to the pupils behind them. 

It is desirable to have the pupils write the lessons 
with pen and ink, and to mark misspelled words with 
a lead-pencil. The books should occasionally be col- 
lected and passed to the teacher for inspection. 

Reviews and Recreations. — Oral review lessons by 
" spelling down " and choosing sides will be found to 
be valuable aids. A choice of sides to continue for a 
month or term has been found to stimulate the efforts 
of some pupils. When a class becomes indifferent, or 
consists of many poor spellers, let two of the best 
spellers choose sides, — the side which misspells the 
fewest words in the month to have some privilege or 
mark of honor. If carried on in the right way, great 
interest will be manifested, the better spellers "spell- 
ing " the poorer spellers out of school hours, and the 
poor spellers making greater effort. 

Occasionally the "word game" may be played, in 



SPELLING. 79 

which words are made up from the letters of a given 
word. For example, from the word Congregational the 
I)upils may be asked first to make as many words as 
they can beginning with c, and using any letters found 
in the given word. After three or five minutes' trial, 
the same may be done beginning with o, and so on. 



80 METHODS OF TEACHING. 



LANGUAGE. 

The term Language may be used in different ways. 
As a faculty of the mind, it is the association of ideas 
with their proper signs. The term is also applied to 
the expression of ideas and thoughts, generally by 
words and propositions, spoken or written. By the 
study of language the power of association is cultivated 
and the ability is acquired of expressing ideas and 
thoughts correctly and easily, both in speaking and in 
writing. In its widest application, language as a 
branch of study includes reading, writing, spelling, 
grammar, and expression or composition. As generally 
used, however, the term is applied to the last-named 
subject, or that study which has for its object an easy 
and correct expression of ideas and thoughts. Such a 
study is elementary in character and precedes the study 
of -grammar, which is scientific. 

Objects. — The two chief ends to be sought in ele- 
mentary language work are correctness and fluency. 
Correctness of spoken language consists in correct pro- 
nunciation, in the use of correct words, both in kind 
and construction, and in having the words of a sentence 
follow each other in proper order. Correctness of 
written language, in addition to the last two features, 
consists in correct spelling, punctuation, and capitaliza- 
tion. 

In securing fluency of expression, it should be the 
aim of the teacher, first, to see that the pupils have 
right and useful thoughts to express ; secondly, to see 
that the thoughts are clear and distinct ; and thirdly, to 



LANGUAGE. 81 

see that the expression is direct, simple, free, and 
natural. 

Means. — Regular Studies. — All of the objects named 
cannot be attained by attending to expression merely. 
Without clear and distinct thoughts of a useful kind, 
there can be no good expression ; and without proper 
expression, the thoughts are likely to be indistinct and 
fleeting. It is important, therefore, that language cul- 
ture should be an essential feature of all the regular 
studies of the school. Every fact observed and every 
thought acquired should be expressed in language clear, 
accurate, and original. 

Imitation. — First among the most effective means 
of acquiring correct expression is imitation of good 
models. Every one knows by experience and by ob- 
servation how much good language depends upon early 
influences. No amount of study in school will entirely 
overcome a habit of using incorrect language which has 
been acquired in early life. The importance, tlierefore, 
of correct speech in the schoolroom can hardly be over- 
estimated. The teacher should carefully guard himself 
against the use of language vvdiich would not be regarded 
as a model of excellence for his pupils to imitate. 

Correction. — In all the exercises of the school, both 
teacher and pupils should be ready to correct every in- 
correct expression which is made. If this is done con- 
stantly, and the correct forms are written out and 
frequently reviewed, much will be done to overcome the 
influence of poor models in the home and on the street. 
It is not necessary, nor is it well, to interrupt the 
thought of a pupil in the midst of a statement by 
the correction of mistakes. When the pupil has fin- 



82 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

ished what he has to say, mistakes may be pomted out 
and the proper corrections made. 

Copifing. — Constantly during the first year, and 
occasion all}'' afterwards, the copying of sentences and 
words from accurately written copies should be prac- 
tised. The copies may be on the blackboard, paper, or 
cardboard, and sliould always be most carefully written. 
No poorly or carelessly written copies should ever be 
placed before the children, and care should be taken 
that habits of writing slowly and carefully are formed 
from the first. 

After the first year, or as soon as the child can form 
letters correctly without a copy, copying from the read- 
ing-book may be practised, both for the purpose of learn- 
ing the use of capital letters, marks of punctuation, etc., 
and for securing greater familiarity with the words. If 
the pupils are properly directed, a habit of attention and 
of picturiiig in the mind, words and groups of words, 
is also gained by this exercise. Lead the pupils to 
look carefully to the words of a phrase or sentence be- 
fore they write it. After the copy is made, ask them to 
see whether they have copied the words correctly in all 
particulars. If any mistake has been made, have them 
erase what has been written and try again. After a 
time good habits of attention will be formed, and the 
copying may be done in study time. Unless care is 
taken, pupils, even in the higher grades, will be found 
stopping in the middle of words to look at the copy, 
thus forming thoughtless and mechanical habits. 

Object Lessons. — The first essential for correct ex- 
pression is the possession of clear ideas, and these are 
best received through, or by means of observation les- 



LANGUAGE. 83 

sons. Whenever in such lessons an idea or thought is 
developed, it should find expression first orally and 
afterwards in writing. After the object lesson is com- 
pleted, the various statements which the pupil has 
made should be brought together in proper form. For 
example, when the shape and color of an envelope have 
been taught and named, the statement may be, " The 
shape of this envelope is oblong, and its color is buff." 
Or when a lesson upon a plant is given, the name and 
description of the different parts may be made as soon 
as they are observed. Afterwards these facts should be 
brought together so as to make a connected statement 
of what has been learned. If there is not time to 
do this in the time allotted for the observation 
lesson, let it be done as a part of the next lesson in 
lano'uao^e. 

Further suggestions will be found in connection with 
what is said upon observatimi lessons. 

Actio7is. — One form of object lessons of interest and 
value to young children, especially for the purpose of 
expression, is actions. The teacher may do something, 
as walk across the floor, and then ask his pupils to tell 
orally in an entire sentence what he did, and afterwards 
to write the sentence. Thus a simple act, or several acts 
in succession, may be described, the number and com- 
plexity of them depending upon the ability of the 
j)upils. By this means, the spelling of many common, 
difficult words may be taught, as well as the use of capi- 
tal letters and marks of punctuation. 

The following sentences will suggest to teachers 
what actions may be described in the various grades : — 



84 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

John rang thfe bell. 

You walked across the room. 

You placed two pencils on the desk. 

You picked U\o petals from the flower. 

I heard you stamp your foot twice. 

Mary passed her knife to Julia. 

Thomas raised the window-sash. 

Did you shut the door? 

You dropped your handkerchief on the floor. 

You put John's hat on the desk. 

John and William put their hats on their heads. 

William, James, and Sarah went to the teacher's desk. 

You threw a ball into the air and caught it wlien it came down. 

Thomas went to the wash-basin, wet his sponge, and returned 
to his seat. 

James went to the teacher's desk, took from it all of the pupils' 
writing-books, and distributed them to their owners. He then went 
to his seat and began to study his geography lesson. 

Use of Pictures. — Next to the objects themselves, 
pictures are most valuable in exciting ideas and 
thoughts, and are therefore nseful as a means of lan- 
guage study. They may be used as objects are used 
when a description of what is seen is called for, or they 
may be used as a basis for imaginary stories. 

In describing the parts of a picture, young children 
will need special assistance and direction from the 
teacher. Place a large, interesting picture — not too 
complex at first — before the class or school, and ques- 
tion somewhat as follows : — 

" How many boys are there in the pictnre ? " " What 
are they doing?" "What animal is fullowing on be- 
hind?" "What kind of dog is it?" "What is one 
of the cows doing? " The answers should be in entire 
sentences, and should afterwards be written out connec- 



LANGUAGE. 85 

tedly under the direction of the teacher. After some 
practice of this kind the pupils may be able, without 
much assistance from the teacher, to state in full all 
they can see in a given picture. Care should be taken 
that the description does not consist of short statements, 
poorly arranged or connected together by many " and's." 
The final description of the picture suggested above 
might be as follows : — 

" I see two boys driving some cows. One of the 
cows is eating grass by the side of the road, and one is 
going into a field. A large shepherd dog is running 
behind the boys." 

Another scarcely less valuable use of pictures in 
teaching language is to suggest imaginary stories to 
be told by the pupils. The pictures used for young 
children should be simple and somewhat striking. By 
presenting a good plan or by asking questions, lead the 
pupils gradually into good habits of thought and con- 
struction. With the picture above indicated the ques- 
tions might be somewhat as follows : What shall w^e 
call the boys? Where do they live? Do both live on 
the farm ? Which one is the visitor from the city ? 
What relation are they to each other ? Who came with 
Charlie to the country? What are they doing? What 
else do they do on the farm ? etc. After questioning, 
the story may be told orally by one or more of the pupils, 
and afterwards wiitten out in full. Older pupils may 
be able to write the story out in full after a given plan, 
w^ithout preliminary questioning or without first telling 
it orally. The correction and revision of the papers 
may be made during the time of a regular recitation, or 
may be given out as a language lesson. Encourage as 



86 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

far as possible independence and originality of expres- 
sion. 

Dictation. — In every grade after the first, exercises 
in dictation should be given. Avoid the mistake of 
repeating the phrase or sentence so often as to make 
the exercise of writing mechanical. The giving out 
of a short sentence once, with possibly one repetition 
for younger pupils, should be enough. Long sentences 
may be repeated two or three times. 

The chief value of the dictation exercise lies in the 
correction of papers by the pu])ils. Read, letter by letter, 
the sentences, or place upon the blackboard the correct 
form, asking them to place a cross above each mistake. 

Care should be taken to select sentences for dictation 
which will involve practice in all marks of punctuation, 
capital letters, and the spelling of difficult common 
words. The use and spelling of words pronounced 
alike but spelled differently may also be taught in this 
way. The following sentences will indicate the kind of 
dictation exercises which may be given during the sec- 
ond, third, and fourth years in school : — 

The book is very large. 

I have two cents in my pocket. 

Where is your slate ? 

There are eight boys in my class. 

Which book shall 1 take? "^ 

Mary's doll is very pretty. 

The man ate four pieces of bread ? 

Where did you put my penknife? 

Are you sure that you heard me speak ? 

Many girls wear their hair too short to curl. 

I was very weak last week. 

Wait a moment, and I will tell you the weight of the sugar. 



LANGUAGE. 87 

Col. and Mrs. Smith called to see us last evening. 

This is day of , 188-. 

Never separate the letters of a syllable by a hyphen. 
There are sixty minutes in an hour, twenty-four hours in a day, 
seven days in a week, and tifty-two weeks in a year. 

"Where did you buy those oranges?" asked William. 
" I bought them at ]\Ir. Robinson's grocery store, and I paid two 
cents apiece for them," replied John. 

Oh, what a great piece of maple sugar you have ! 
I buy all my stationery at Lee and Shepard's. 
I have a Worcester's and a Webster's dictionary. 

Information Lessons. — It is very important that facts 
learned in connection with the information lessons be 
fixed in the mind by talking and writing. Correctness 
and ease of expression are also gained by such practice, 
and a good opportunity is afforded to teach a proper 
combination and arrangement of short statements. 
After an information lesson has been given, the cus- 
tom should be to talk and write about what has been 
learned. The statements may first be given in answer 
to definite questions, and then they may be combined 
in proper order and connection ; or the lessons may be 
presented by topics, which can afterwards be brought 
together in connected statements. One method is best 
suited to younger pupils, the other to older pupils. 
Occasionally the description may be given without 
preliminary questioning or topical arrangement. 

Story-Telling and Sight- Reading. — Every teacher of 
young children should know how to tell stories, partly^ 
for the sake of interesting and instructing the children, 
and partly for the sake of furnishing material for lan- 
guage lessons. A well-told stor}^ serves as a model for 
the pupils, which they will unconsciously imitate. More 



88 METHODS or TEACHING. 

direct help to a correct an-J easy expression may be 
given if, when the story is told, the pupils are asked to 
reproduce the principal points of it in their own words. 
Let the story be such as will interest the childreu, and 
teach a useful lesson without briugiiig out the moral 
too plainly. 

If the teacher has not the art of telling stories, he 
may read from a book such stories as the children have 
not seen. Better than this, however, is reading at sight 
by the children. If the}" know that such reading will 
be followed by a reproduction of the thought expressed, 
their interest in and attention to what is read will be 
increased, and a greater number of ideas will be gained. 
The same course in respect to talking and writing 
should be pursued, and, the same cautions in respect to 
combination should be observed, as have been spoken 
of before. In the lovrer grades the subject-matter may 
be brought out by skilful questioning. When this is 
done, the children should be encouraged to give the 
story in a connected form, and always in their own lan- 
guage. Unless care is taken, the}- will seek to remem- 
ber words only, and give the language of the book. In 
the higher grades, with little or no questioning the pu- 
pils should be able to give the substance of the article 
read, first orally and then in writing. The written work 
should be carefully examined, corrected, and rewritten. 
One of the most common faults is the making of short 
and disconnected sentences, — a fault wliich is allow- 
able with beginners, but which should be corrected as 
soon as possible. Let the sentences be made so as 
to read smoothly and pleasantly, without many breaks 
and without the use of too many connectives. 



LANGUAGE. 89 

Paraphrasing. — In connection with the reading, the 
higher-grade pupils may with profit occasionally write 
out the substance of a difficult piece of prose or poetry. 
It will not be necessary to rely upon the memory to do 
this, but, with the book before the pupil, he may freely 
translate the essay or poem, being more careful to pre- 
serve its sense than its letter. Besides directly assist- 
ing him in cnm[)Osition, such an exercise will lead 
him to understand many expressions which he might 
otherwise pass by. 

Letter-Writing. — The writing of letters of one form 
or another should occupy the attention of all grades of 
pupils. The proper form of dating, addressing, sub- 
scribing, folding, and directing letters should be taught 
as early as possible, and afterwards attention should be 
given to the body of the letter. The good letter-writer, 
like the good talker, has something to say, and says it 
in a direct and natural way. At first it may be neces- 
sary to give to the children some hints of what they 
should say in a letter. For example, the teacher may 
say, " Suppose you write a letter inviting your cousin, 
whom 3"0u may call John or Mary, to come to see you 
for a week during your next vacation. Tell him or her 
when your vacation is, and then wdiat you could do 
to entertain yourselves." Similar directions may have 
to be given to the children in the second or third year 
in school ; but as soon as may be, lead the children to 
compose their letters without help ; encourage in all 
possible ways originality of thought and naturalness of 
expression. Im.aginary journeys and visits may be 
described in letters to friends at home, thus bringing 
in what has been learned in geography and history. 



90 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

Letters descriptive of familiar' scenes may be written 
to distant friends, and the story of their own experi- 
ence in vacation time be given in familiar letters to 
each other. In tliese and other ways the teacher will 
encourage the pupils to write good, naturally expressed, 
and original letters, being careful not to tell too much 
on the one hand, and not to discourage by too little 
assistance on the other. 

In addition to letters of friendship, pupils in the 
higher grades should give attention to writing business 
letters of all kinds. Ask your pupils to write letters 
applying for board or a situation, or giving an order for 
goods. Cut out advertisements from the column of 
" wants," and give one to each pupil to answer in a 
proper way. 

Business Forms and Notices. — Before leaving school, 
pupils should be able to write in proper form ordinary 
business papers, such as notes, receipts, orders, bills, and 
notices of all kinds. Let them practise in writing no- 
tices advertising a lecture or a concert, an auction sale, 
or a private sale of goods of any kind, the loss of a dog 
or the finding of a pocket-book. For practice in con- 
densation, the writing of telegrams is useful,e in which 
the most is to be said in the fewest words. 

The composing of items of news for the newspaper 
is both interesting and instructive practice. It may do 
no harm to have the pupils sometimes see the result of 
their efforts in print. A lire or an accident, or any other 
event which has occurred in the neighborhood, may be 
described by the pupils, with the understanding that 
the best description will be sent to the locak newspaper 
for insertion. They should be taught that a plain, 



LANGUAGE. 91 

direct statement of facts is to be preferred to the ex- 
travagant expressions which are so frequently found in 
newspapers. 

Elliptical Sentences. — The supplying of ellipses is 
good practice, especially in learning the proper word 
and- correct forms of words to be used. The distinc- 
tion in the use of such words as may and can^ luould 
and should^ lie and lay^ sit and set, in and into, invent 
and discover, between and among, beside and besides, alone 
and only, remember and recollect, ago and since, like and 
as, may be learned in this way. The correct use of the 
words should first be taught, and afterwards exercises 
like the following may be given : — 

I go the recitation room to get my book? 

he lift the stone ? 

I now on the lounge. 

Yesterday I on the lounge. 

I the books on the table. 

The books on the table. 

Come and by me while I read to you. 

the pitcher on the table. 

He went the house. 

The same method of teaching the correct forms of 
words may be found useful, as illustrated in the 
following : — 

John and Mary in school. 

One of the boys ill. 

They sent Mary and to school. 

John is taller than . 

do you wish to see ? 

Who borrowed my pencil? . 

Which is the of the two ? 

Neither James John ready to recite lesson. 

These are ' bonnets. 



92 



METHODS OF TEACHING. 



ComiJO sit ions. — In addition to the diiily practice in 
language work, sucli as has been indicated, the older 
pupils should be expected as often as once a month to 
write a composition upon a given subject. Care should 
be taken to select subjects about which the pupils know 
something, or which are within their comprehension. 
Dislike to composition-writing is generally due to the 
fact that the pupils are called upon to give expression 
to ideas which do not exist in their minds. The aver- 
age school boy or girl lias very dim ideas, or no ideas at 
all, of such abstract subjects as hope, beauty, and perse- 
verance, and it is no wonder that discouragement and 
disgust follow any attempt on their part to write upon 
them. When we remember that the greatest writers 
have chosen for their themes the simplest subjects, we 
can hardly make the mistake of giving too simple topics 
for our children to write upon. 

The following list of subjects will be found suggestive 
of what may be given to older pupils of the grammar 
grade : — 



My home. 

My grandfather's farm. 

The town in which I live. 

Our school. 

Trees. 

The coffee plant. 

A picnic excursion. 

A sleigh-ride. 

A visit to the country. 

A visit to the city. 

A visit to Mammoth Cave. 

How I spent my last vacation. 

A journey to England. 



A letter from Egypt. 

Our baby. 

George AVashington. 

Abraham Lincoln. 

William E. Gladstone. 

Joan of Arc. 

The reminiscences of an old 
tree. 

Autobiography of a cent. 

History of a loaf of bread. 

The old horse's story. 

What my dog would say if he 
could talk. 



LANGUAGE. 93 



Good manners. 
" A rolling stone gathers no 
moss." 

" All is not gold that glitters." 
Intemperance. 
Cruelty to animals. 
A hmidred years ago. 



A tramp's diary. 
Six reasons why a boy should 
not smoke. 

How a shoe is made. 
How a barrel is made. 
A visit to a paper-mill. 
A visit to a hospital. 
A visit to a prison. 

During the latter part of the grammar-school course, 
pupils should learn to separate their compositions into 
paragraphs, ^'hey may receive some assistance in this 
direction, by studying carefully the paragraphing of 
prose in their histories and reading-books. 

Outlines. — All original written work should be done 
according to some definite plan. At first the plan or 
outline may be provided by the teacher. By degrees, 
however, the pupils should be led to make tlieir own 
outlines, which should be submitted to the teaclier for 
approval and correction. For the younger pupils the 
outlines should be very simple, scarcely more in some 
cases than two or three questions to be answered in en- 
tire sentences ; as, for example, in describing an object 
the teacher may say: Wliat are the parts? What is the 
shape of each part? What is the use of each part? 
Or in writing upon any material, as wood or paper, 
the pupils may answer the questions : Where obtained ? 
How prepared? For wdiat used? Varieties? 

In giving an object lesson, the teacher or one of the 
pupils should write upon the blackboard the principal 
facts as the}^ are discovered. These statements will 
constitute material out of which the composition may be 
written. Frequently it is well for the pupils to analyze 
a short sketch for the purpose of making an outline. 



94 



METHODS OF TEACHING. 



The following outlines will suggest to teachers what 
may be given to, and required from pupils as a guide 
to their writing upon simple subjects : — 



Any natural produc- 
tion (as salt) . . 



Any manufactured 
article (as glass) . 



1. Qualities. 

2. Uses. 

3. Where, when, and how obtained. 

' 1. Qualities. 

2. Uses. 
i 3. Kinds. 

ra. Materials. 

4. How made \ h. ^Vhere procured. 

I c. Order of manufacture. 



1. Size and covering. 
ra. Name. 
Any animal . . . <( 2. Parts ^ h. Description. 

I Ic. Uses. 

I 3. Habits. 



Biography . 



1. Time of birth. 

2. Circumstances of parents. 

3. Events of boyhood or girlhood. 

4. Education. 

5. Subsequent events in order of occurrence. 

6. Leading: traits of character. 



Any plant 



1. 


ISTame and general appearance. 


2. 


Parts : 




a. Root 






h. Stem 






c. Leaves )■ Describe each. 




d. Flowers 






e. Fruit 




3. 


Uses. 


4. 


Where found 





LANGUAGE. 



95 



Places seen 



A journey (real 
or imaginary) 



1. Location. 

2. Surroundings. 

3. Parts or divisions. 

4. What is contained or produced. 

5. Objects of interest. 

6. Reminiscences. 

f 1. Time and place of starting. 

2. Intended destination. 

3. The route taken. 

4. Mode of travelling. 

■{ 5. Description of country. 

6. Objects of interest on the way. 

7. Description of place visited. 

8. Manners and customs of people. 

9. Incidents and anecdotes. 



It is well sometimes to give in the outlines some topics 
which will stimulate thought and investigation. Care 
should be taken that the information furnished be not 
too extended. The following outline ^ is an example of 
what may be given to pupils in advanced and grammar 
grades : — 

WINDS. 

1. Beneficial on land, as they — 

a. Carry moisture. Where from? 

b. Equalize the temperature. How ? 

c. Purify the air. How ? Name places benefited. 

d. Carry seed. What kinds ? How a benefit ? 

e. Pump water and grind flour. How and where? 

2. Beneficial on the sea, as they — 

a. Aid in navigation. How? 

b. Produce ocean currents. How ? Value of the currents ? 

3. Injuries on land by — 

a. Hurricanes. Illustrate. 

b. Carrying seed. Illustrate. 

c. Spreading diseases. Explain how. 

1 From Intelligence, Chicago. 



96 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

4. Injuries on the sea by — 

a. Cyclones, etc. 

h. Hindering navigation. How ? 

A few pointed, suggestive questions upon a subject 
when it is assigned, often give direction and method to 
the work of the pupils ; as, — 

RAILROADS. 

1. When first built and where ? 

2. How do they benefit western farmers and eastern manufac- 
turers in our country ? 

3. How do they aid the poor? 

4. How do they promote the settlement of new countries? 

5. Do they affect the value of the land ? 

6. Illustrate their value in carrying news, merchandise, and 
people. 

Correction of False Syntax. — Mention has been made 
of the desirability of correcting mistakes as they occur. 
These mistakes, and others which are most frequently 
made, should be made a special object of criticism and 
correction even before the rules of correction are learned. 
Read the incorrect sentences, or write them upon the 
blackboard, and ask the pupils what correction should 
be made. Erase the incorrect form and have the correct 
form supplied, after which, let the pupils write the cor- 
rected sentence in a blank-book. Sometimes the sen- 
tence may be written with certaiji parts omitted, and the 
pupils be asked to supply the missing parts. Thus the 

teacher may write, ''One of the boys here." The 

pupils are to be led to say whether is or are is to 
be used in the sentence, and then the}^ should write the 
sentence in full as before. Sometimes correct and in- 
correct sentences may be placed upon the board and 



LANGUAGE. 97 

the pupils asked to write correctly all the sentences 
they see. This plan is especially good for examination, 
when pupils will not be helped b}- guessing, as they are 
when something in every sentence is to be corrected. 
Let the most common errors receive the most attention, 
and review often enough to have the corrections fixed 
in the mind. 

Do not let the incorrect forms remain upon the board, 
for fear they will be imitated by children in their writ- 
ing. Only the correct forms should be written in the 
blank-book by the pupils, or, if incorrect forms are writ- 
ten, they should be erased or marked with a cross. 

Correction of Written Work. — The value of language 
lessons, so far as accuracy is concerned, depends largely 
upon the extent and manner of correction. If the in- 
correct language of pupils is left uncorrected, the errors 
are impressed upon their minds, and the use of incorrect 
forms of speech becomes a habit with them. It is 
advisable, therefore, to allow no language work to be 
done without correction. 

It is well to have each pupil, beyond the first year, 
provided w^ith a language-exercise book. For the 
younger pupils, the book may be made by binding 
together from twelve to twenty leaves of primary ruled 
paper. Upon the left-hand page the language exercise 
can be written ; and upon the right-hand page the same 
exercise, after it is corrected, can be rewritten in a 
correct form. 

In dictation and other exercises in which all the 
pupils are supposed to have the same forms of expres- 
sion, the proper correction may be made by the pupils 
themselves as the exercise is repeated by the teacher or 



98 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

placed upon the blackboard. In other exercises, such 
as abstracts, letters, etc., in which the language of each 
pupil is different from that of every other one, the cor- 
rection of errors should be made b}^ the direct assistance 
of the teacher. Some corrections may be made at the 
time of writing, the teacher passing among the pupils 
and pointing out their errors; but most of the errors 
will have to be corrected after the papers are collected. 
Such corrections should be so made as to have the 
pupils ascertain the correct form and rewrite the given 
exercise entire. If a slate is used, the sentence contain- 
ing tlie error should be erased and rewritten correctly. 
If books are used, such as have been suggested, the 
errors may be corrected and the exercise be rewritten 
on the opposite page. 

But it will not be well to have all the corrections 
made by the teacher. In the first place, such work, if 
done thoroughly, would take up much of the teacher's 
time, both in and out of school ; and secondly, cor- 
rections made by the teacher are not so useful as 
those which enable each pnpil to see the mistakes of 
all the rest and know hoAV they are to be avoided. 
This, of course, is most difficult with the younger 
pupils, and yet it may be done to some extent even with 
them. In correcting mistakes, as in teaching, do not 
attempt too much at a time. The time of an entire 
recitation may profitably be taken to correct a single 
exercise of a few sentences. When a correction is pre- 
sented to a class, drill upon it as soon as convenient, 
so that the mistake may not be made again, or, if it 
is made, that it may be corrected by the pupils. 

One way of correcting is as follows : Let as many 



LANGUAGE. 99 

pupils write their exercises upon the blackboard as can 
be accommodated there, and call the attention of the 
entire class to the corrections you make in ea-cli, fre- 
quently appealing to the class for assistance. One pupil 
may have punctuated the sentences improperly ; another 
may have failed in the use of capital letters ; the sen- 
tences of another may be poorly constructed. 

When some of the corrections have been made, ask 
the pupils to re-examine their papers and mark the 
errors they see. Then after exchanging papers they 
may correct the mistakes of one another. After all this 
is done, the teacher, by glancing over the papers, can 
tell whether they may be copied into the language 
books as they are, or whether another recitation will 
be necessary to correct the papers. By this method 
the teacher's work will be materially lightened, and 
the pupils w^ill acquire the power of correcting their 
own and one another's errors. 

With older pupils a key for tlie correction of errors 
may be used. The following key has been tried with 
success in some schools : — 

W. — Careless writing. 
S. — Error in spelling. 
P. — Error in punctuation. 
C. — Error in capital letter. 
Wd. — Error in use of word. 
G. — Error of grammar. 
V. — Vague; meaning uncertain. 
F. — Error in figure. 
B. — Borrowed. 
Par. — Place of beginning paragraph. 
[ ] — Passages within brackets to be recast. 
? — To inquire about. 
X — Some fault too obvious to require particularizing. 



100 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

Underline the error, and place the letter indicating 
correction in the margin. 

A simpler form of marking would be to draw an ob- 
lique line through an error of spelling, punctuation, or 
use of capital letter; to underline a word wrongly used, 
and, if the sentence should need reconstructing, to en- 
close it in a parenthesis. Anything more than this, to 
be indicated by writing. 

One good method of correcting the compositions of 
older pupils is to have two or tiu'ee pupils write their 
compositions, or a part of them, on the board each morn- 
ing. During the day the other members of the school 
may correct what is written, using the signs of a given 
key. Before the session closes, the teacher, with colored 
craj^on, may go over the work, correcting each error that 
has been made. The attention of the school should be 
called to these corrections, and the pupils be asked to 
copy the signs of correction and rewrite their compo- 
sitions. The same course may be pursued each day with 
other compositions. In this way each pupil learns to 
avoid errors which he and others have made. The pu- 
pils also by degrees acquire the ability to correct one 
another's errors; so that after a time the papers may 
be distributed among members of the class or school, 
for correction, subject to final correction by the teacher. 
The importance of having the pupils rewrite their com- 
positions after correction should not be forgotten. 



GKA:MiMAIi. 101 



GRAMMAR. 

During the first seven years in school the pupil has 
been learning to express his thoughts with accuracy and 
facility. In this work he has acquired an art Avhich will 
be of the greatest practical value to him, and he has 
also laid the foundation for the study of principles. 
He may now begin the study of grammar, which treats 
of the relations and forms of words in sentences. He 
may also study the elements of logic and rhetoric, 
which are closely related to grammar, — logic treating 
of the thought expressed, and rhetoric treating of the 
manner in which the thoughts are expressed. Analysis 
of sentences and the choice of words and phrases do 
not really belong to grammar, which has reference 
mainly to the construction of sentences. It is impor- 
tant that the teacher should keep in mind these dis- 
tinctions, though the three subjects may be carried on 
together. 

Outline of Study. — During the last two years of 
the grammar-school course — if the course is nine years 
— the study of grammar and analysis may be pursued; 
but oidy the simpler facts should be learned in the 
grammar school, the more abstruse and difficult parts 
of the subject being left for the high-school course. A 
book may be used, but it should not be rigidly adhered 
to either in the order of topics or amount taken. Some 
things will have to be supplied by the teacher, and in 
the case of many books much will have to be left out. 

The following outline will indicate both the order and 
amount of work which may be taken in two years : — ■ 



102 METHODS OF TEACHI^'G. 

1. Sentence : — 

Subject, Predicate \ ^^P"^^- 
•• ( Attribute. 

2. Parts of speech : — 

(1) Noun. 

(2) Pronoun. 

(3) Adjective. 

(4) Verb. 

(5) Adverb. 

(6) Preposition. 

(7) Conjunction. 

(8) Interjection. 

3. Sentences : — 

(1) Kinds: 

Declarative, imperative, interrogative, exclamatory. 

(2) Forms: 

Simple, complex, compound. 

4. Analysis : — 

(1) Principal elements : 

^^^3^^*^ I entire, simple. 
Predicate ) 

(2) Subordinate elements : * 

(a) Uses and kinds : 

Objective, adjective, adverbial. 
(h) Form: 

Word, phrase, clause. 

5. Nouns: — 

(1) Kinds: 

Common, proper. 

Collective, abstract. 

Simple, derivative, compound. 

(2) Properties : 

Numbers, genders, cases. 

6. Pronouns : — 

(1) Kinds: 

Personal, interrogative, relative, adjective. 

(2) Properties: 

Persons, numbers, genders, cases. 



GRAMMAR. 103 

7. Adjective: — 

(1) Kinds: 

Descriptive, pronominal, numerals, articles. 

(2) Variations of form : 

Comparison. 

8. Verbs : — 

(1) Kinds: 

Regular, irregular. 
Transitive, intransitive. 

(2) Forms: 

Simple, derivative, mode inflections, voices, tense in- 
flections, persons, numbers (conjugation). 

9. Advei'bs : — 

(1) Kinds: 

(a) Simple (in relation) : 

Manner, place, time, degree, cause, etc. 

(b) Conjunctive. 
(23 Properties: 

Comparison. 

10. Prepositions. 

11. Conjunctions: — 

(1) Kinds: 

Co-ordinate, subordinate. 

(2) Uses. 

12. Interjections. 

Definitions. — The object of study in grammar is 
the sentence, precisely as the mineral is the object of 
study in mineralogy or the plant in botany. Beginning 
with the sentence, therefore, or with several sentences, 
we first lead tlie pupils to know and define a sentence 
and its related parts. Two points are to be observed 
in teaching definitions: first, to see that they are con- 
structed by the pupils upon facts Avhich they themselves 
have observed; secondly, to secure accuracy of state- 
ment. When the definitions have been properly taught, 
and when the statements are made by the pupils in 



104 METHODS OF TEACHI^^G. 

accordance with the facts observed, it may be well to 
compare those statements with others which are found 
in the text-book, and which may sometimes be substi- 
tuted for their own. But even the text-books are not 
always correct, as when it is stated that " the subject of 
a proposition is that of which something is said " and 
that " a noun is a name." 

To illustrate how definitions may be made, the fol- 
lowing examples are given : — 

The pupil is first asked to express a thought about 
the book, the crayon, and the schoolhouse. These and 
other expressions are placed upon the blackboard, and 
the name "sentence" is given to each expression. The 
pupils soon see and state that ''a combination of words 
expressing a thought is a sentence." By obsei'ving the 
sentences it becomes apparent that there are two dis- 
tinct parts in every sentence, one part expressing that 
of which something is said, and the other part telling 
what is said of that expressed by the first part. The 
definitions of subject and predicate are accordingly 
made from these facts. 

Etymolog-y. — The parts of speech and their proper- 
ties are also learned by observation. Sentences as be- 
fore are written upon the blackboard, and the attention 
of the pupils is directed to those words which name 
objects of thought, or things of which we may think. 
A noun, then, is seen to be a word which names an 
object of thought. By this definition which they have 
made the pupils should point out the nouns in many 
written and printed sentences until the nouns of any 
sentence which they understand are quickly recognized. 

From what has been said it will be seen what use 



GLJAM.M.Vr.. 105 

should be made of the book. It may be used by the 
pupils after the topics have been taught, chiefly for 
guidance in accuracy of statement and in furnishing 
suitable sentences for illustration and study. 

Much practice will be found necessary before the 
parts of speech can be readily distinguished and named. 
It is well for the pupil also to give definitions as he 
names the parts of speech. 

When the parts of speech can be readily distinguished, 
they may be taken up separately, beginning with the 
noun. As before, present to the pupils sentences con- 
taining nouns having various uses and properties. As 
these uses and properties are distinguished, they should 
be classified, named, and defined. The following exam- 
ple will illustrate the method of teaching the kind and 
properties of all parts of speech. Place several sen- 
tences upon the blackboard ; as, — 

The boy lost his knife in Boston. 
John bought an apple for his sister. 
The man's coat was torn. 
William's sister Kate went to the city. 
The girls went to the concert. 
There are seven days in a week. 
The dog is named Donald. 

First ask the pupils to select those nouns which name 
an individual object. The nouns Boston^ John^ Wil- 
llartis^ Kate, and Donald would be selected, to which 
the name proper would be given by the teacher. Proper 
nouns should then be selected from the reading-books 
and defined. The other nouns will be seen to be, not 
the names of individual objects, but the names of classes 
of objects. These are named and defined as before. 



106 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

Further classification of the kinds of common nonns, as 
collective, abstract, and verbal, may be made in the 
same way, and each kind be defined. 

Numbers and genders are easily taught. The pupils' 
knowledge of langunge will enable them to distinguish 
and define these terms at once. Cases are also easily 
recognized and defined when it is known that there are 
only two case-forms of nouns, — one used to denote 
possession, and the other all other relations. The sub- 
jective and objective relation of nouns should be indi- 
cated in parsing, and in the case of pronouns the names 
of the cases should be given. Persons of pronouns 
should be taught by placing before the pu[)ils many 
sentences in which different forms are used to indicate 
whether they denote the speaker, the person spoken to, 
or the person or thing spoken of. The pupils will see 
that only some pronouns have person, and will call 
these personal pronouns. The cases of pronouns should 
be taught in a similar manner, and when the various 
forms indicating the different relations are easily distin- 
guished and named the definition should be given. The 
inflection will follow, and should be made, as far as pos- 
sible, by the pupil alone. 

The other parts of speech and their properties should 
be taught in the same way. First present many exam- 
ples of the fact which it is desired to teach, and when 
the fact is well understood, lead the pupils to apply the 
knowledge gained in many different sentences. 

Syntax. — The right construction of sentences is the 
object of the study of grammar, and its rules should ])e 
considered as soon as possible after the study of gram- 
mar is begun. Greater interest in the study will be 



GRAMMAR. 107 

awakened when its practical bearing is seen, and a 
greater variety and amount of practice in correcting 
false sj'ntax will be had by learning the rules of syntax 
early m the course. As soon, therefore, as the proper- 
ties of the parts of speech are known, their rules of con- 
struction should be learned. The rules are taught in 
the same way as are definitions. Put upon the black- 
board many sentences like the following : — 

John struck his ball. 
I saw him in the city. 
He taught me to read. 
Etc., etc. 

By observing these sentences the pupils will be led 
to see the changed forms of the nouns and pronouns in 
different relations, and will also discover that in certain 
relations the same form is used. From the facts thus 
learned the rules will be made. 

Parsing-. — Parsing consists in giving the parts of 
speech, their kinds, properties, uses, and the rules for 
their construction. The use of parsing is to apply in a 
convenient form the facts and principles which have 
been learned. The form of parsing should be sim})le, 
and at first definitions and inflections should be given 
mainly for the purpose of fixing them in memory. The 
following form for parsing a pronoun may be used by 
beginners : — 

In the sentence "He came to see me," "me" is a 
pronoun because it is a word used instead of a noun. 
(Declined : nom. I, etc.) It is a [)ersonal pronoun be- 
cause it has person ; first person, because it denotes the 
speaker; singular number, because it stands for one 
object ; objective case, object of " to see," according to 



108 



METHODS OF TEACHING. 



the rule, — A pronoun used as the object of a tran- 
sitive verb or its participles must be in tjie objective 
case. 

After some practice of this kind is had, a shorter 
form may be used, as : " me " is a personal pronoun, 
first person, singular number, objective case. Rule : A 
noun or pronoun, etc. 

The order for parsing the various parts of speech in 
the shorter form may be as follows : — 



1. 


Noun : — 


4. 


Verb: — 




(1) kind. 




(1) kind. 




(2) number, 




(2) (voice), 




(8) gender, 




(3) mode. 




(4) case, 




(4) tense, 




(5) rule of construction. 




(5) agreement, 
((3) rule. 


2. 


Pronoun : — 








(1) kind. 


5. 


Adverb : — 




(2) person. 




(1) kind. 




(3) number, 




(2) (deg. of comparison) 




(4) gender, 




(3) relation. 




(5) case, 








(6) rule of construction. 


6. 


Preposition : — 
use. 


3. 


Adjective : — 








(1) kind. 


7. 


Conjunction : — 




(2) (number), 




(1) kind, 




(3) degree of comparison, 




(2) use. 




(4) relation. 







Analysis. — While the stud}^ of the parts of speech 
is progressing, there should be taught the various kinds 
and forms of sentences and analysis as indicated in the 
outline. The phraseology used in tlie outline may not 
be the same as that which is used in the text-book ; but 



GUAMMAPu. 109 

whatever form is used, there should be kept constantly 
in mind the purpose of gaining a clear [)erception of the 
thought of the autlior, and a knowledge of the proper 
form and order of elements. Let the progress in analy- 
sis be very gradual, allowing each new fact learned to 
be reviewed in many sentences. At first the sentences 
studied should be of the simplest kind, and wlien the 
elements of such sentences are learned, the same kind 
and form of elements may be found in other and more 
complex sentences. The following form of analysis will 
illustrate the use of terms given in the outline : — 

The tidings of the death of his son filed the old man's heart with 
anguish. 

A simple, declarative sentence. 

The entire subject is " The tidings of the death of his son.'' 

The simple subject is " tidings.'"' 

The entire predicate is "filed the old man's heart icith anguish." 

The simple predicate is ^^ filed." 

'^ Of the death of his son" is an adjective phrase and modifies 
" tidings." 

" Of his son " is an aljective phrase and modifies " death." 

" The old man's heart " is an objective phrase, and modifies 
"filed." 

" With anguish " is an adverbial phrase, and modifies '^ filed." 

The form and relation of separate words are given in 
the parsing which follows the analysis. 

Syiitliesis. — Composition-writing of all kinds, as 
outlined in another place, should be carried on through- 
out the entire course. In addition to this there may be 
practice in combining, contracting and expanding the 
elements of a sentence. Such work as the following 
will be found profitable : — 



110 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

Writing sentences having any desired kind and form 
of element; expanding words into phrases; expanding 
words and phrases into clauses; contracting clauses 
into phrases ; contractii^g phrases into words; combin- 
ing two or more simple sentences into a compound or a 
complex sentence. 

Correction of False Syntax. — Rules of syntax are 
used not only in forming sentences correctly, but also 
in testing the construction of sentences already formed. 
For reasons already given, it is desirable that the prac- 
tical benefits of the study of grammar should be derived 
as early as possible. As soon as a rule of syntax is 
learned, it should be used as a guide in correcting un- 
grammatical sentences. Many sentences containing 
violations of a rule just learned, and of rules previously 
learned, should be placed before the pupils for correc- 
tion and for tlie reasons of correction. 

To test the knowledge of pupils, and at the same time 
to make them thoughtful in applying rules, both correct 
and incorrect sentences may be placed upon the black- 
board for them to write out correctly upon paper and 
to give reasons of correction. This will be found to be 
much better than to place before the pupils sentences 
having only incorrect forms which can frequently be 
corrected "by guess." The following exercise is a good 
test for pupils who have studied the construction of 
nouns, pronouns, and verbs. 

Write correctly the following sentences, and give 
reason for every correction made : — 

He called to see John and me but neither of us were at home. 

Whom do YOU think I saw in New York ? 

Who was it that touched the bell ? Was it me or James ? 



GRAMMAR, 111 

Ten men fell into the water and not one of them were drowned. 

Every one of the witnesses testifies to the same thing. 

Whom do you take me to be ? 

Do you use Webster or Worcesters dictionary? 

Whom did you come with ? 

He told John and 1 to come when we was ready. 



112 METHODS OF TEACHING. 



ARITHMETIC. 

Arithmetic may be defined as a knowledge of num- 
bers. The objects of its study are, first, to acquire skill 
in those computations which are of use in the affairs of 
life ; and secondly, to train the faculties of the mind. 
To grain these ends it is obvious that there should be a 
careful selection of topics to be taught, and that the 
topics should be presented in such a way as to secure 
a proper kind and amount of mental training. 

The topics to be presented, and the order in which 
they should be presented, will be seen in the course of 
studies. It will be observed that much that is found in 
many text-books is omitted in tlie prescribed course. 
The subjects are limited in order to give needed time 
to teach and practise upon tlie more practical parts of 
arithmetic. Advanced work in mensuration and com- 
plicated business problems are also dropped from the 
course, for the reason that grammar-school pupils are 
not mature enough to grasp these subjects which w^ould 
better be taken up in the high school. 

Nearly all the faculties of the mind are developed by 
the study of arithmetic, and we should see that they are 
developed in an orderly way. While it is doubtless 
true that the power of reasoning is greatly strengthened 
by this study, we must be careful not to force it by a too 
early application to difficult problems. The teacher 
should keep constantly in mind the necessity of pro- 
ceedingf from the concrete to the abstract, and from the 
simple to the complex. In computations, first accuracy, 
and secondly rapidity should be secured. Do nothing 



AKITHMETIC. 113 

for the pupils wbicli they can do for themselves, and 
always encourage originality, both of thought and of 
expression. 

When the idea is awakened or the course of reason- 
ing made plain, there should be a repetition of the 
mental act, until the idea or the reason is fixed in the 
mind. Frequent reviews and drill exercises are there- 
fore necessary, and should be given in such variety of 
form as will test the pupils' knowledge of the subject 
and enable tliem to recognize quickly a difference as 
well as a resemblance of conditions. 

First Steps. — Ideas of number are first gained by 
means of visible objects. Blocks, splints, shoe-pegs, etc., 
should be placed in the hands of children as soon as 
they enter school, and with these objects the various 
combinations of numbers should be made, beginning 
with two, and proceeding by slow degrees, until, with- 
out tlie aid of (objects, the combinations are known at 
sight. Addition, subtraction, multiplication, and divis- 
ion should be taught together because it is found that 
operations by synthesis assist the pupils in analysis, and 
that the combination and separation by equal parts lead 
diiectly to shortened forms of expression. For exam- 
ple, when the pupils see that two put with two makes 
four, they can learn at the same time that four less two 
makes two, that two twos are four, and that four divided 
by tw^o is two. 

As soon as possible, the pupils should be led to apply 
the knowledge of numbers they have acquired. When 
an operation is performed with the blocks, stories based 
upon the given combination may be made. In these 
stories encourage as far as possible originality of expres- 



114 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

sion. Gradually the pupils may be led to make up tlie 
stories without the objects, and at last combinations 
may be expressed without reference to objects. Early 
in the course, also, practice should be given in solving 
problems involving the common weights and measures. 
First with the objects themselves, and afterwards with- 
out them, problems of a practical nature may be solved 
while the pupils are yet learning the simple combi- 
nations. 

As soon as the pupils acquire a thorough knowledge 
of the combinations with objects, drill upon abstract 
numbers may be begun. Generally it is bes-t to keep 
the practice upon abstract numbers a little behind the 
practice with objects. For example, while the num- 
ber eiglit is being taught with objects, practice in 
abstract numbers to four may be given. To show how 
objects may be used in teaching numbers, and how the 
applications and abstract drill work may be done, the 
following outline of statements and questions is given. 
The exercise is intended for a class of first-year pupils 
who have learned the combinations to seven. They are 
supposed to be standing around a table, with the blocks 
before them. The teacher sits at one end of tlie table, 
and directs and questions as follows : — 

Put one block with the seven blocks. Do you know how many 
you have now? You have eight blocks. Put one block on the 
table. Put seven more with it. One block and seven blocks are 
how "many blocks? One boy and seven boys are how many boys? 
Tell me a story about one and seven. Put six blocks on the table. 
Put two more with them. How many have you? Put the eight 
blocks together. Put two of them behind you. How many are left 
on the table ? Eight blocks less two blocks are how many ? Tell 
a story about eight less two. Put eight blocks on the table. Put 



ARITHMETIC. 115 

them into groups of two. How many twos in eight? Put them 
into groups of foui:. How many fours in eight? If one apple costs 
two cents, what will four apples cost? If one orange costs four 
cents, what will two oranges cost? If you have eight cents, how 
many oranges can you buy at a cent apiece ? How many at two 
cents apiece ? If you have six cents, how many pencils can you buy 
at two cents apiece ? Go to the store with six cents and buy pears 
at three cents apiece. Tell me a story about two threes. About 
three twos. About two fours. About four twos. Here are eight 
mittens; how many pairs? How many horns have three cows? 
How many ears have four boys ? Tell me a story about pairs of 
shoes. About pairs of bracelets. 

How many twos in four? in six? in eight? Look and see how 
many gills in a quart. How many? How many gills in a pint? 
How many pints in a quart ? in two quarts ? If one pint of milk 
costs two cents, what will one quart cost ? What will two quarts 
cost ? If one gill costs one cent, what will one quart cost ? 

Divide four blocks into groups of two. What is one-half of four 
blocks ? of six blocks ? of eight blocks ? Divide eight blocks into 
groups of two. What is one-fourth of eight blocks ? One-eighth of 
eight blocks ? 

Now without your blocks, quickly : One and one? Two and 
one? Two less one? Two and what make three? Three less 
one? Three less two ? Two ones and what make three? Three 
and one ? One and three ? Four less three ? Four twos are how 
many? How many twos in four? How many ones in four? How 
many threes in four? One-half of four? One-fourth of four? 

It should be imderstood that it will take several reci- 
tations to go over the ground covered by the above 
exercise, provided that time is given for the stories and 
for teaching the measnres and fractions. It will also 
be understood that the recitation will not always take 
this precise form or that the combinations, stories, and 
illustrations will be limited to what is given above. 
See that every child is attending to the work in hand, 
whether it is in teaching, telling stories, or drilling, and 



116 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

when members of the class are inattentive or tired, 
change the exercise or stop the recitation. 

Objects should not be used for teaching numbers 
beyond 20 in the primary course. Knowing the com- 
binations to 20, all others to 100 are easily learned. In 
addition and subtraction beyond 20, the pupils are made 
to see that little work is needed. They have only to 
apply tlie knowledge they already have. For example, 
in the problems 28 + 6 and 34 — 8, they instantly recog- 
nize the results of 8 + 6 and 14 — 8, and have only to 
think of the tens in getting the answer. At first the 
teacher leads them to see this ; afterwards they do it of 
their own accord, until adding and subtracting of all 
numbers less than 10 are done at sight. 

In multiplication and division, the pupils should be 
led to make their own tables from what they know of 
addition and subtraction. Adding and subtracting by 
twos, threes, etc., will enable them easily to construct 
their own tables, and after they have constructed them, 
they should learn them so well as to be able to multiply 
and divide numbers at sight. 

The plan as laid down for the primary grades in- 
cludes all combinations to 144, and for the iirst division 
of ungraded schools, all combinations to 100. It is not 
intended in this plan to add or subtract numbers greater 
than 10 or to use a multij)lier or divisor greater than 
12. Yet if the pupils become very proficient in 
this work, it may be well to have them practise in 
other combinations, such as 28 + 64 ; 83 - 25 ; 18 X 4 ; 
64^16. To add and subtract large numbers, lead the 
pupils to add or subtract first the tens, and afterwards 
the units: thus in the problem 28 + 64, first add 60, then 



AKITHMETIC. 117 

4. The pupil would say 28, 88, 92. In subtracting 25 
from 83, he would say 83, 63, 58. After considerable 
practice of this kind the computations can be made at 
sight. 

Primary Drill. — To secure accuracy and rapidity of 
work, it will be found necessary, especially in the third 
year, to s})end much time in drill. It is not enough to 
recite the tables. Pupils may do this, and still not be 
able to add, subtract, multiply, and divide at sight. 
Practice upon the combinations may be had in prepar- 
ing a given lesson, and in the recitation. 

In giving work for the pupils " to study " at their 
seats, the teacher may give a lesson in a book, or put 
the problems on the blackboard. Time may be saved 
by putting the problems on pieces of cardboard. These 
slips may be used by different pupils and classes. The 
following exercises for study Avill suggest what may be 
placed upon the board or cards : — 



Add 





42 + 6 = ? 


38-6=? 




38 + 9 = ? 


40-9=? 




4:\-\-'{= 48 


35-? = 29 




? +26 = 34 


? - 6 = 32 




8x3=? 


42-7=? 




9x?-36 


36 - ? = 9 


6 


7 




4 


8 


18 6 


9 


5 


-9 X8 



8)18 



The same exercises may be used for drill in recita- 
tion. In addition to these the following exercises are 
suggested. 

Add by columns, the teacher or pupil pointing, begin- 
ning with very short columns and easy numbers, thus : — 



118 METHODS OF TEACHING. 



3 


5 


2 


5 


7 


6 


9 


2 


4 


6 


4 


3 


4 


8 


1 


2 


3 





5 


8 


3 



The pupil will say one, three, six ; two, six, eleven ; 
three, nine, eleven ; and so on. Increase the length of 
columns gradually, until the pupils can add quickly 
twenty or more numbers expressed by a single figure 
without mistake. 

Another method of drill is to place four columns on 
the board, thus : — 

+ 6 x4 -5 -3 



7 


6 


16 


26 


2 


9 


19 


29 


9 


3 


13 


23 


3 


7 


17 


27 


5 


4 


14 


24 


8 


5 


15 


25 


6 


2 


12 


22 


4 


8 


18 


28 



As the teacher points to each number, let the pupil 
add, subtract, multiply, or divide, as indicated above the 
columns. By changing the figures above the columns, 
a great amount of work may be dictated in a little time. 
The pupils may give the result with or without giving 
the formula. 

Still another method of drill is to place figures near 
the circumference of a circle, and add until a certain 
number is reached; or subtract, beginning with a cer- 
tain number. 

Add by 2's, by 3's, etc., beginning with 2, with 3, etc. 
Subtract by 2's, by 3's, etc., beginning with 40, with 50, 
etc. 



ARITHMETIC. 119 

Place in the centre of the circle desciibed above 
a figure or figures. Point to any figure in tlie 
circumference, and requhe the pupil to multiply 
or divide. By occasionally changing the figures in 
the circle, a large number of problems may be given. 
Keep the attention of every pupil to the recitation 
of every other pupil, and require answers only as you 
point. 

Practical Problems. — Mention has been made of 
the advisability of making stories in connection with the 
learning of combinations. When the combinations are 
known, they should be applied as soon as possible to 
practical problems. These problems should contain the 
common weights and measures, and should be of such a 
nature as to induce pupils to think. The following 
problems will suggest what may be given daily during 
the latter part of the third year in school. Some of the 
problems will have to be carefully taught with objects 
before they can be understood by the pupils. Encour- 
age the pupils to give one another original problems of 
a similar kind. 

What will three pints of milk cost at eight cents a quart ? 

How many cupfuls of milk in a quart, if each cup holds half a 
gill? 

A piece of tape six inches long costs three cents. What will a 
yard cost at the same rate ? 

How many apples, at the rate of t^Yo for a cent, can I buy for 
twenty cents ? 

• What will six apples cost, at the rate of two for three cents? 
what at the rate of three for two cents ? 

I buy 12 two-cent stamps at the post-office, and give a half- 
dollar. What change will be given me ? 

Eighteen eggs are worth what at twenty cents a dozen ? 



120 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

What will one pound and four ounces of meat cost at twelve 
cents a pound ? 

If you should walk six rods north, and then turn and walk eight 
rods south, how many rods would you be from the place where you 
first started? how many yards? how many feet? 

If a peck of potatoes will last a family one week, how many 
weeks will two bushels last them ? 

At one dollar a yard, what will be the cost of a piece of carpet- 
ing twenty-four feet long ? 

Notation and Numeration. — The writing and read- 
ing of numbers should be begun in the fourth year, 
but it is not well to give numbers of more than seven 
or eiglit places at this time. Sticks, and bundles of 
tens and hundreds should be used to teach notation. 
The sticks may be counted, and the number expressed 
by figures on the blackboard. Eighteen sticks should 
be counted as one ten and eight, the ten being bound 
into a bundle. When two more sticks are placed with 
them, they will make two bundles of ten sticks each, and 
should be called two tens, or twenty. When ten bun- 
dles of ten sticks each are counted, they should all be 
bound together into one bundle and called one hundred. 
As the numbers are thus taught, the expression should 
be placed upon the board in figures and read. It may 
not be necessary to teach notation in this way beyond 
thousands. When this is done, the pupil will see that 
ten of one denomination will make one of the next 
higher, and can write and read numbers readily to 
millions. In the fifth year billions, trillions, and quad- 
rillions should be taught. 

Numbers of two places of decimals should be taught 
and used in the fourth year. Pupils should learn to 
write decimals at first through a knowledge of writing 



APaTHMETlC. 121 

dollars and cents. When tliey can write and read num- 
bers in dollars and cents readily, lead them to see that, 
as there are one hundred cents in a dolhir, one cent is 
one-hundredth part of a dollar, and that one-hundredth 
is expressed precisely as one cent is when written with 
a decimal point. Six dollars and one cent is expressed 
thus, 86.01, and may be read six dollars and one cent, 
or six and one-hundredth dollars. From this it may 
be readily seen that any number of cents represents so 
many hundredths, and may be read as hundredths. 
The first figure at the right of the decimal point repre- 
sents the number of dimes, and may be called tenths of 
a dollar. This may be taught in the same way as hun- 
dredths is taught. Numbers of three places of decimals 
can be taught in the fifth year. As one thousand mills 
make a dollar, one mill is one-thousandth of a dollar ; 
and therefore one mill, when expressed by figures, may 
be read one-thousandth. 

Fundamental Processes. — At the beginning of the 
fourth 3'ear in graded schools, and of the second period 
in ungraded schools, the pupils are supposed to have a 
thorough knowledge of the four fundamental processes 
to 144 or to 100. They can, without hesitation, add 
and subtract twelve and all numbers below twelve. 
They can with equal facility multiply and divide, when 
the multiplier and divisor do not exceed twelve. They 
have learned to express in figures the numbers to 144, 
and can count to one thousand. They have learned to 
use and to write the fractions J, J, J, J, J, in connection 
with the combinations, and have had much practice in 
the application of their knowledge of numbers to prac- 
tical problems. 



122 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

All of this work should be constantly reviewed in 
the fourth year, while other things are being taught. 
As soon as pupils have acquired a knowledge of units 
and tens in writing numbers, addition of numbers of 
two figures should be- begun. Tins should be taught 
with sticks, beginning with the addition of two num- 
bers that will not require "carrying." We may, for 
example, wish to add 22 and 21. 

22 sticks and 21 sticks are placed in position, properly 
separated into tens and units. Putting the one unit 
with two units, we have three units. Putting the two 
bundles of tens with the other two tens, we have four 
tens. Answer, four tens and three units, or forty-three. 
The figures should be written out in proper order, and 
each result indicated as we go on. Several problems 
equally easy should be wrought in the same way. 

When the pupils have had sufficient practice of this 
kind, take an easy problem in which the sum of the 
units is more than nine. Thus, in the problem 24 + 38, 
take the sticks as before, and put the 4 sticks with the 
8 sticks, making 12 sticks equal to 1 ten and 2 units. 
Put together the 10 sticks in one bundle, and add the 
tens thus, 1 + 2+3 = 6 tens. Answer, 6 tens and 2 
units, or 62. 

Subtraction can be tauglit by taking from a given 
number of sticks a part. Thus, to teach 34 — 22, we 
would take 2 sticks from the 4 sticks and 2 tens from 
the 3 tens, leaving 1 ten and 2 units, or 12. 

To subtract 17 from 35, we should put before the 
pupils 35 sticks, consisting of 3 bundles of tens and 5 
mdts. Asking them to first take 7 units from the 5 
units, they will see at once that they will have to untie 



AKITHMETIC. 123 

one of the bundles and put the 10 sticks with the 5 
sticks, making 15 sticks. Now they take 7 sticks from 
15 sticks, and have remaining 8 sticks. 1 ten from 2 
tens leaves 1 ten. Answer, 1 ten and 8 units, or 18. 
^ Multiplication and division should also be taught 
with objects, each operation being expressed in figures. 
It will not be necessary to carry the objective teaching 
beyond hundreds, but it will be found useful to have 
considerable practice with smaller numbers before num- 
bers of tlie higher denominations are taken. No num- 
ber higher than ten thousand should be used duiing 
the fourth year, so as to allow time for a sufficient 
amount of drill and for work upon practical problems. 

Fractious. — According to the prescribed course, 
fractions are taught during the sixth year in the graded 
school, or the latter part of the second period in the 
ungraded school. Before this, simple fractions have 
been taught objectively, and used to some extent in the 
various operations. Circles of pasteboard will be found 
to be the most convenient means of teaching fractions. 
The idea of a fraction should be first taught b}^ present- 
ing tlie circles cut into halves, fourths, eighths, thirds, 
and sixths. The expression may follow, first oral and 
then written. Three-fourths will be seen to be three 
of the four equal parts into which the circle is divided, 
and is expressed by placing one figure above another, 
and a line between them. The lower figure will be 
seen to express the size of the parts, and the upper fig- 
ui'e to express the number of parts taken. Considerable 
practice of this kind, with the fractional circles and 
expressions, may be followed by giving the terms denom- 
inator and numerator^ and havijig them defined by the 



12-4 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

pupils. The same objects may be used in teaching 
redaction of mixed numbers to improper fractions, of 
improper fractions to mixed numbers, and of fractions 
of one denomination to those of another. Care should 
be taken to occasion the idea before the expression is 
given. Thus the reduction of 5\ to fourths, 4| to 
eighths, 3 1 to sixths ; of f, |, f, to whole or mixed num- 
bers ; of J, f, f, y%, to lower terms, should be known by 
means of objects before the operation is expressed in 
writing. When these facts have been presented many 
times to the pupils, they may be expressed in figures, 
and the pupils may be led to see the process by which 
the answers are obtairjed. For example, in the state- 
ment 5f = ^-^'^ the pupils should be led to see, after the 
fact has been taught by objects, that the answer could 
be obtained by the following course of reasoning. In 1 
there are 4 fourths, in 5 there are 5 times 4 fourths, or 
20 fourths ; add 3 fourths, and the answer is -\^-. If it 
is thought advisable, the rule could be deduced in the 
same way. 

In teaching addition, subtraction, multiplication, and 
division of fractions, the same method should be pur- 
sued. First use the objects, and afterwards express the 
operations b}^ performing tliem in figures on the board. 
Practise much in this Avay with small numbers before 
the book is used, and from the problems performed lead 
the pupils to deduce their own explanation or rule. 

To illustrate the method of teaching fractions the 
following examples are given, one for teaching addition, 
and one for division. It will be understood that reduc- 
tion of fractions has been taught before these subjects 
are reached. 



ARITHMETIC. 125 

Look at these circles and fractions as I hold them before you. 
How much is J of a circle and ^ of a circle 1^ + ^11 + ^1 i + f? 

i + f? i + f? i + f? Let us now express in figures the answers 
you give me : ^ + i = 1 ; f + i = 1 ; i + i = | ; etc. 

Do you see how we added the halves and fourths ? How did 
we add the fourths and eighths ? Give an example adding halves 
and fourths, fourths and eighths. Your lesson to-morrow will be 
these fifty problems on the board (or chart). 

The problems given for study are of course similar 
to those which they have had with the circles in the 
class. 

The first part of the following exercise is designed to 
show how to teach the division of a fraction by a whole 
number. The second part illustrates a method of 
teaching the division of a whole number by a fraction. 
The directions and questions should be many more than 
are here given, and each exercise may be enough for 
two recitations. 

Divide this circle into two equal parts ; how much in each part? 
Divide this half-circle into two equal parts ; how much in each 
part? Divide these two circles into four equal parts; how much 
in each part? Divide these two circles into eight equal parts; 
how much in each part? Divide this half -circle into four equal 
parts ; how much in each part? Divide one-fourth of a circle into 
two gqual parts; how much in each part? Divide three-fourths 
into two equal parts ; how much in each part ? Let us now see 
what you have done (writing on the board) : — 

l-2==i; J-2 = i; 2-4=A; 2-8 = i; *-^4 = i; i-2 = i; 

1-^2 = 1-^ 

"Who will divide any of these fractions into equal parts and 
place the result on the board? 

Practise in this wa}^ with halves, fourths, and eighths, 
and then with thirds and sixths. When a large num- 



126 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

ber of problems and answers is placed upon the board, 
lead the pupils to see and express for themselves the 
fact that we may divide by a whole number b}^ dividing 
the numerator or multiplying the denominator. When 
they have done this, give out a large number of simple 
j)roblems for them to perform before the book is taken. 
To divide an integer by a fraction. 

Call these circles pies. I have eight pies, and give them to the 
persons in the room ; each person receives four pies ; how many 
persons in the room ? Put down on your slate each operation as 
you find it. I have eight pies, and give to each person in the 
room two pies; how many persons in the room? I have one pie, 
and give to each person at the table one-half a pie ; how many 
persons at the table? I have one pie, and give to each person at 
the table one-fourth of a pie ; how many persons at the table ? I 
have two pies, and give to each person at the table one-half a pie ; 
how many persons at the table? etc. 

Xow let us see what you have on your slate. Yes, — 

8^4 = 2; 8-2 = 4; 1-^ = 2; 1-1 = 4; 2-J=4; 2-1 = 8; 
2-i = G; 2^1=12. 

Keep these upon your slates, and do as many more as you can 
before to-morrow. 

Now call tlie circles cents. I have four cents (holding up four 
circles) ; if apples are one cent apiece, how many apples can I 
buy? how many at h cent apiece? how many at } of a cent apiece? 
If the apples were three times as much apiece, how many could I 
get; more or less? what part as much? If these apples were f of 
a cent apiece, how many apples could I get? Now let us'take 
eight cents. Who will give ns the same kind of a problem? 
What are the expressions on your slate ? Let us put them on the 
board : — 

4_^1^4; 4-§=8; 4 -- } = 16 ; 4 -- f = -i/ = 5] ; 8-J = 16; 
8 -^ I = -1^6 ^ 51 . 8 -^ 1- = 82 ; 8 -- f = -»/ = lOf . 

From this w^^rk both the explanation and rule may 
be deduced by the pupils. 



ARITHMETIC. 127 

Applications. — From the time the child enters 
school lie is led to apply his knowledge of numbers in 
making and doing practical problems of various kinds. 
With a knoAvledge of common and decimal fractions his 
work of this kind can only be limited by his immatu- 
rity. As the pupil matures, his field of stud}^ and prac- 
tice widens. Some part, at least, of all kinds of business 
he may know, and the teacher should gather from every 
source material with which to work; several reference 
books, both written and mental, should be upon the 
desk to suggest ways in which the pupils' knowledge 
of numbers may be applied. 

Weights and Measures. — These subjects, according 
to the prescribed course, are taken in the seventh year. 
During all the preceding years the pupils have per- 
formed problems which involve nearly all of the weights 
and measures commonly used in every-day life. They 
will not, therefore, have to spend much time in learning 
the tables. The metric system, and some parts of the 
tables of square and cubic measures, and of Avoirdupois 
and Troy weights, will have to be learned: also miscel- 
laneous facts, such as the weight of different commodi- 
ties, the number of units in a gross, and score; number 
of sheets in a quire and ream, and the value of common 
foreign coins. All of these tables which will be of use 
to the pupils should be made and learned by them. 
When they are learned, they should be reviewed and 
applied so frequently that the pupils will not have to 
go to the book for information. 

In choosing work for the pupils, give only that which 
is practical. Omit all parts of compound addition, sub- 
traction, and division, which are rarely or never used. 



128 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

Do not give impossible areas or volumes to measure or 
absurd puzzles to solve, but let the work be such as 
occurs, or may occur, in practical life. 

The time may be well spent in the reduction of com- 
pound numbers, both ascending and descending, the 
computation of longitude and time, and the mensura- 
tion of surfaces and solids, such as papering and carpet- 
ing rooms, measuriiig boards, wood, bins, etc. Select 
from two or three books placed upon your table for the 
purpose such problems as you think most practical and 
best adapted to your pupils. If the reasoning of any 
problem is complex, give the same problem first with 
small numbers, and always encourage the pupil to 
use blocks and diagrams to illustrate the problems. 
The practice of illustrating problems by diagrams 
cannot be too early begun or too constantly insisted 
upon. 

Very much time need not be spent upon the metric 
system. It is enough to teach by objects the different 
measures, and to lead the pupils to work enough upon 
the various applications to see the great saving of time 
which would follow the introduction of the sj^stem. As 
the denominations are rarely used in practice at the 
present time, they would be soon forgotten if learned 
ever so well. Therefore,' not so thorough work in the 
application of metric measures should be attempted as 
in those measures which are in common use. 

Percentage. — The kind of work to be done in per- 
centage is indicated in the best text-books upon the 
subject. The amount to be done is limited only by the' 
time of the pupil, for very much drill is needed to 
distinguish readily the various conditions of problems 



ARITHMETIC. 129 

wliich are classed under the head of percentage. In no 
part of arithmetic is the necessity greater of passing 
slowly from the known to the unknown than in per- 
centage. Teach each part of the subject with great 
care, using familiar illustrations and small numbers. 
Avoid, so far as possible, all work by rule, but lead the 
pupil by slow degrees to understand the principle in- 
volved in each problem as it is presented. Review fre- 
quently, and arrange the problems in such a way as to 
encourage the pupils to think. Sometimes pupils are 
directed to look over a " model solution," and to perform 
all the problems of a given lesson by it — a course which 
is likely to discourage independent thinking. To indi- 
cate how the subjects may be taught, a few illustrative 
examples are here given. The process of each problem 
should be indicated upon the blackboard as the answers 
are found, and when the principle is understood, drill 
with small numbers upon many similar problems should 
be given. Present for a lesson problems containing 
various conditions, so as to induce the pupils to consider 
carefully each step of the work. 

1. Given the cost and selling price, to find the rate per cent. 

I buy a book for $4, and sell it for i|5. What do I gain ? What 
part of the cost is the gain ? How many hundredths of the cost is 
the gain ? What per cent ? 

1 buy a book for $5, and sell it for $4. What part of the cost 
do I lose ? What per cent do I lose ? 

Give other problems of a similar kind containing 
small numbers. 

2. To find the simple interest of any sum of money. 

I lend you «1^190. To whom is a favor done? Who should pay 
whom for the use of it? Money paid for the use of money is 



130 METHODS OE TEACHING. 

interest. The money loaned is called the principal. Suppose you 
were to pay me 8 per cent of the principal ('*^100) for the use of it 
for one year; what would you pay me? AVhat would you pay me 
for the use of it for two years ? Six months ? Suppose you were 
to pay me 6 per cent a year ; how mucli would you pay me for one 
year? For six months? For three months? For two months? 
For one month, or thirty days ? For six days ? For twelve 
days? etc. 

Suppose I w^ere to lend you $600 at 6 per cent a year; how 
much would you pay me for six months ? For one month ? For 
one day ? For four days ? For six months and four days ? 

When this method is well understood, by much prac- 
tice teach any one of the shorter methods in the same, 
way, and allow only that method to be used. 

3. Given the sum sent to an agent, and his commission, tojind luhat 
is expended. 

First teach by familiar examples the terms commission, con- 
signor^, consignee. 

Upon what does a commission merchant always reckon his com- 
mission ?. If he buys goods for $100, and his commission is 2 per 
cent, what does he get for his trouble? What would be sent him 
to pay for the cost of the goods and his commission ? If I should 
send my agent $102 with which to purchase goods after deducting 
his commission of 2 per cent, what would he expend ? What w^ould 
he have for his trouble ? The cost of the goods represents how 
many hundredths, or per cent, of itself? The commission is how 
many per cent of the cost ? AVhat I send him is how many per 
cent of the cost? F[ow will you get 100 per cent? (If the pupils 
hesitate here, use the familiar problems like the following : John 
has one-third more money than James. John has 20 cents ; how 
many cents has James ?) 

William has 50 per cent more money than Thomas. William 
has $3 ; how much has Thomas ? 

Repeat such problems until the pupils see the princi- 
ple involved, and can readily perform the problems in 
which the base is not given. 



ARITHMETIC. 131 

4. To assess a tax upon the property of an individual. 

First suppose that $100 is to be raised in a school of fifty pupils, 
each pupil to pay an equal share without reference to the amount 
of property he has. What part of the whole amount would each 
pay? What per cent? How much would each pay? Suppose 
that the $100 is to be paid by the pupils in proportion to the prop- 
erty they held, and all together had $1,000 ; how much on one 
dollar would be raised? If John had $50, what would be his tax? 
Again, assuming that everyone of the pupils should pay one dollar 
whether he had property or not, how nmch would be raised in this 
way? How much left of $100 would have to be raised on the 
property? How much now would have to be raised on one dollar? 
What would John's tax be? 

Increase the difficulties slowly until large numbers 
can be easily dealt with. 

Notes, bills, receipts, insurance policies, bonds, and 
other business pa[)ers should be brought into the class 
and used in such a way as to give reality to the work 
and to fix the principles taught. Parties concerned in 
business transactions may be personated by members of 
the class. For example, one pupil may be the maker of 
a note, another may be the payee, another may be an 
endorser, another may represent the cashier of a bank. 
The whole subject of notes, including interest, partial 
payments, and bank discount, may in this way become 
real and interesting, and be firmly fixed in the minds 
of the pupils. 

Definitions and Rules. — Definitions and rules should 
be taught in the higher classes of the grammar grade, 
not by having the pupils commit them to memory, but 
by a process of analysis. For exampde, to teach the defi- 
nition of subtraction the teacher might take any num- 
ber, as ten blocks, and take away three blocks to see 
how many blocks remain. The pupil will observe the 



132 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

process, and define snbtraction as " the process of tak- 
ing part of a number away to find how many are left." 
Rules are also taught in the same way. Let the pupil 
observe each step of a given process, and state in gen- 
eral terms the order in which the steps were taken. 

The use of formulas should be largely avoided in all 
grades except the highest. Whenever formulas are 
used, they should be made by the pupils from princi- 
ples which are already understood. 

Mental Arithmetic. — The use of mental arithmetic is 
unquestioned. It aids in developing the powers of at- 
tention, memory, and reasoning, cultivates the power 
of language, and greatly assists pupils in their writ- 
ten number work. Oral exercises should be given 
separately, and also in connection with written arith- 
metic. 

The oral exercises which are given in connection with 
written arithmetic are mainly for the purpose of illus- 
trating principles, and for drill both in abstract and 
in concrete work. 

Illustrations of the use of small numbers in teaching 
a new subject or principle have already been given. 
By concentrating the thought mainly upon the reason- 
ing processes, the pupil is led to see plainly what he 
could not see if he were dealing with large numbers. 
Mental exercises should therefore very frequently pre- 
cede or introduce a regular recitation in written arith- 
metic, and the}^ may alt^ be given whenever pupils fail 
to understand a process or the conditions of a problem. 
For example, there may be some pupils who do not un- 
derstand the process of finding the present value of a 
note due at some future time. The principle involved 



ARITHMETIC. 133 

is found to be very simple when such problems as tlie 
following are given : — 

John has 4 cents, which is h as much as James has ; how much 
has James? John has 6 cents, which is | as much as James has; 
how much lias James ? John has a certain sum of money ; after his 
father gave him h as much more, he had 6 cents; how much had 
he at first? 

By giving many problems similar to these, and in- 
creasing the size of the numbers gradually, the pupils 
can readily see that the present value is |§^ of itself ; 
and if it gains yf q- in six months, it will be worth \^^ of 
its present value in six months. Knowing its value 
then in money, the present value can be easily ascer- 
tained. 

When a principle is well understood, it needs to be 
fixed in the mind by doing mentally many simple prob- 
lems involving that principle, and others which have 
been taught previously. For example, when division of 
fractions is well understood, problems like the following 
should be given in great number: — 

I divide 8 apples equally among some boys, giving each boy I of 
an apple ; how many boys received a part ? 

To how many boys could I give 6 apples, if each boy has ^ of 
an apple? 

How many sticks Ih feet long can be cut from a stick 6 feet 
long? 

How many bushels of potatoes at | of a dollar a bushel can be 
bought for ^6 ? 

Four men earned in one day -fSo. If this money were divided 
equally among them, bow much would each man receive? 

When coal can be bought for ^7 a ton, what part of a ton can be 
bought for ^2 n 

Drill follows teaching, and serves to fix in the mind 



134 



METHODS OF TEACHING. 



what is tauglit. It may consist of practice upon abstract 
work, in which rapidity is tlie end sought, or upun con- 
crete work, in which the main object in view is the cul- 
tivation of the reasoning powers; or it may combine 
both of these operations, and aim to promote both 
thought and rapidity. Besides the means already sug- 
gested for drill, the teacher miglit place upon the black- 
board or upon man ilia paper drill tables like the follow- 
ing. By extending the tables to 10 or 15, several 
hundred problems may be given from each table : — 





A 


B 


c 


D 


E 


F 


G 


H 


I 


J 


K 


L 


1 


i 


1 

2" 


i 


i 


i 


i 


t 


¥ 


2 


H 


1 


1(> 


2 


3 
4 


i 


i 


1 


2 


i 


f 


-V- 


i 


3| 


IV 


13 


3 


f 


f 


i 

4 


f 


4 


i 


1 


¥ 


3 


n 


If 


19 


4 


f 


1 


i 


i 


i 


f 


f 


¥ 


8 


5| 


2| 


17 


5 


1 


5 

8 


i 


1 


t 


* 


f 


¥ 


6 


n 


3| 


U 



The table may be used as follows ; 



A + B, B + C, A + C, 


B + E, 


B + D, 


A + E, etc. 


A-B, A-C, A-B, 


D - E, 


D-F, 


I — A, etc. 


A X B, B X C, A X I, 


Ax J, 


AxF, 


A X E, etc. 


I ^ A, I - C, A - I, 


J-^I, 


A^B, 


A-C, etc. 


Reduce 1 pounds to ounces. 








Reduce E feet to inches. 








What will A jDounds of meat cost at L 


cents a 


pound? etc. 



Besides the oral work Avhich is done in connection 
with written arithmetic, there should be a few minutes 
set apart each day for miscellaneous mental practice. 
The problems given should be of a varied character, 
sometimes consisting of operations with abstract num- 
bers, in which accuracy and rapidity are mainly sought; 



ARITHMETIC. 135 

at other times the problems should be of such a nature 
as will call into active exercise the reflective faculties. 
As no one book would furnish a sufficient variety of 
problems, there should be upon the teacher's table sev- 
eral difterent mental arithmetics, from wdiich to gather 
and give problems of a proper kind. It will not be 
found best for the teacher or pupils to read the prob- 
lems from a book. Let the teacher glance over two or 
three pages of a book, and select such problems as will 
induce the pupils to think, giving them in language of 
his own. Sometimes the problems may be analyzed and 
explained, and sometimes, especially in examination, 
answ^ers only may be required. One good method of 
examining a class in mental arithmetic is to give out 
the problem slowly and distinctly, ask the pupils to do 
it mentally and to keep the answ^er in their minds. 
After a sufficient time has elapsed for all to do the 
problem, give the direction, ^' Write the answer," and 
after they have had time to write the figures of the 
answer, ask them to put the pencils doAvn and to take a 
good position. If the answ^ers are given in large figures, 
the slates may be examined by having them held up, 
asking pupils wdio have the wrong answer not to hold 
them up. 

Explanations. — Great freedom should be allowed 
in the form of explanations, especially to pupils of the 
low^er grades. The pupils' attention should be directed 
mainly to the thought, and not to the language, as is 
frequently the case when complicated and set forms are 
insisted upon. Sometimes a pupil will understand how 
to perform a problem, but cannot give the reason. Let 
similar problems be given with smaller numbers, and 
the expression of a reason wdll come in time. 



138 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

Short Processes. — Alwaj's encourage the pupil to 
perform a problem in the shortest way, provided the 
problem is equally well understood by the short process. 
It will be found generally best in the lower grades to 
have but one method of performing problems of a given 
kind. In the higher grades, however, the pupils should 
be encouraged to perform problems with the fewest 
figures, provided, of course, accuracy is not sacrificed. 



GEOGRAPHY. 137 



GEOGRAPHY. 



Geography is a knowledge of the earth on which 
we live. Physical geography treats of the earth in its 
natural condition, including land, water, climate, and 
productions. Political geography treats of the earth as 
modified by man, its countries, cities, towns, society, 
religion, government, etc. 

Geography may be elementary or scientific. Ele- 
mentary geography is a knowledge of facts and is pur- 
sued in the primary and grammar schools. Scientific 
geography is a knowledge of causes and relations, and 
may be begun in the highest class of the grammar or 
uno^raded school and be continued in the higii school. 
It should be said, however, that the facts to be studied 
in the lower grades may include as much of the relations 
of cause and effect as are within the comprehension of 
the pupils of those grades. 

Objects. — The knowledge acquired in the study of 
geography should be a real knowledge of the earth as 
the home of man, providing for him food, clothing, and 
shelter, supplying objects for his enjoyment and study, 
and so being a means of social, intellectual, and spirit- 
ual progress. As a means of mental culture, also, the 
study of geography is of great use. Observation, imag- 
ination, memory, judgment, and language are all exer- 
cised in the study, and by it the child's interest in the 
world about him is awakened in such a way as to 
increase his sympathy and love for his fellow-men. 

It is evident that these great objects cannot be at- 
tained by learning and reciting facts ordinarily found 
in a text-book, especially if tlie facts stand in the pupils' 



138 



METHODS OF TEACHING. 



minds in a disconnected way and unrelated to any expe- 
rience of theirs or to any direct use. 

Preparatory Lessons. — Before geography as a study 
is begun, cliildren need to acquire a proper habit of 
observation, and to gather facts wliich will aid them in 
their subsequent study. During the first three or four 
years, therefore, the plan of study includes lessons in 
For7n^ Flace^ Plants, Animals, a7id Mhierals, which are 
intended to give such knowledge as will make the study 
of geography more intelligible and therefore more prof- 
itable. The methods to be pursued in these subjects are 
to be treated under the head of Observation Lessons. 

Local G-eografliy. — F'urther preparation for the study 
of geography is made in the third and fourth years by 
lessons to teach geographical ideas and geographical 
language. The knowledge thus gained is sometimes 
called local geography because much of it is gained by 
observation in the locality of the school. 

The simpler subjects of the following outline should 
be taught during the third year, the more difficult being 
delayed until the fourth year, when all preparatory work 
should be reviewed. 

I. Bodies of Land. 



1. Hill 



3. Plain: 



' base. 




' base. 


slopes. 
summit. 




slopes. 
summit. 


hill range, 
hill system. 


2. Mountains 


peaks. 

mountain range or 


' field. 




chain. 


woods. 




mountain system. 


meadow. 

swamp. 

prairie. 


4. Table-land 


volcano: If '^'•'■•- 
( lava. 


. desert ; oasis. 







GEOGRAPHY. 



139 



Valley: — 
River valley. 
Gorge, or canon. 
Pass. 



8. Coast 



9. Islands 






beach. 



J cliffs. 
1 bluffs. 
'- projections : 

f continental. 
I oceanic. 
1 volcanic. 
I coral. 



6. Highlands. 



7. Lowlands. 



C cape. 

J promontory, 
j peninsula. 
I isthmus. 



II. Bodies of Water. 



1. Spring 



3. River 



' pure water. 






source. 


mineral. 






branches. 


hot. 






banks. 


- geysers. 

- source, 
branches, 
banks, 
bed. 


2. 


Brook:- 


bed. 
current, 
channel, 
mouth. 
. water-shed. 


current. 


4. 


Pond: ' 


) system. 


channel. 






I basin. 


water-falls. 


5. 


Lake: < 


) system. 


mouth, 
uses. 






I basin. 

' sea (archipelago) 


river system. 
river basin. 
. water-shed. 


6. 


Ocean :< 


gulf, 
bay. 
harbor, 
strait, 
channel. 
. sound. 



III. Climate (weather). 
r hot. 
1. Temperature : -^ cold. 

I temperate. 
Spring, summer, autumn, winter; day, night. 



140 



METHODS OF TEACril^G. 



2. Air and moisture: 



IV. Soil: 



wind. 

vapor. 

dew. 

frost. 

cloud. 

fog. 

mist. 

rain. 

hail. 

snow. 

ice. 

' loamy. 

sandy. 

clayey. 

fertile. 

arable. 
. barren. 



V. Productions. 



1. Plants 



2. Animals: 



3. Minerals : 



for food. 




for clothing. 


r houses. 


for building-material : 


<^ ships. 


for fuel. 


I utensils. 


for medicine. 




for oils and dyes. 





f for food. r furs, 

for clothing: ^ skins, 
for labor. I leather. 

for utensils : ] •^* 
( bone. 



r houses. 
r for building-material: <! ships. 
■\ for fuel. I utensils. 

I for food. 



GEOGRArHY. 



141 



VI. People. 



1. Races 



2. Occupations: 



3. Government : 



4. Religion : 



5. States of Society 



r Caucasian. 

Mongolian. 

JNlalay. 

African. 
_ American. 

r agriculture. 

fishing. 
J mining. 
! manufactures. 



commerce 



^ republic. 
^ monarchy 



^ exports. 
( imports. 



absolute, 
limited. 



r Pagan. 
J Jewish. 
1 Christian. 

V Mohammedan. 

/ savage. 
J barbarous, 
j half-civilized. 
^ civilized. 



Some of the foregoing subjects will be found difficult 
to teach satisfactorily. Let it be remembered, hoAvever, 
that no amount of telling or reading can take the place 
of teaching, and that the teacher may be content to 
teach very little of a subject, provided the facts are dis- 
covered and expressed by tlie pupils themselves. 

Among the most difficult of these subjects to teach is 
climate, a thorough study of which belongs to a later 
period. Some ideas of the subject may be gained by 
calling attention to the temperature and moisture of the 



142 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

atmosphere from time to time, making comparisons of 
the weather of different seasons and of different pLices. 
It may be noted that the temperature is more equable 
near the sea than at a distance from it, and that it is 
lower upon a high hill than it is in the valley. 

Some general ideas of the formation of dew and rain 
may be gained by simple experiments. Call attention 
of children to the fact that some of the water which was 
left in a dish on the stove the day before has disap- 
peared. Bring out the statement from them that the 
water has " gone into the air." Call attention to the 
rising steam, and ask them for familiar instances of 
the same thing. Give them the name evaporation. 
Hold a cold plate over the steam, and let them observe 
the drops of water formed on the plate. Call attention 
to the deposit of moisture on the window-pane in a cold 
day, and upon the outside of a pitcher of ice-water in a 
warm room. From these illustrations the children get 
the idea of condensation ; and, by a little questioning, 
they may see that the same conditions exist in the for- 
mation of dew and rain as exist when drops of water 
are seen to form on the plate and pitcher. 

Most of the topics in the above outline, under Bodies 
of Land and Bodies of Water, may be tauglit by lead- 
ing the children to observe the various features of land 
and water in the vicinity of the schoolhouse. The ob- 
servation should be made from the schoolhouse at the 
time of recitation and at recess, or it may be" made in 
little tours of inspection by the school either as a whole 
or in groups. Frequently it will be found well to direct 
the attention of children to certain things, and have 
them bring the results of their observation into the 



GEOGRAPHY. 143 

recitation. Ifc will be useful, also, to call attention to 
their past experiences, and to use the results of their 
experience in the recitation. 

As an assistance both to observation and to memory, 
it will be found well to draw and to mould representa- 
tions of the various objects observed, and to have the 
pupils express correctly, in their own language, all the 
facts observed. 

For the purpose of teaching productions, bring before 
the class as many specimens of native and foreign prod- 
ucts as can be found. From the stores, from the 
neighboring woods, and from the homes of pupils, there 
may be obtained a large number of vegetable, animal, 
and mineral productions, some of which may be kept 
permanently in the school. 

To teach ideas relating to people, first lead the chil- 
dren to think of the condition of the people of their own 
town and State. Subsequently, by means of stories and 
pictures, lead them to compare the people of other coun- 
tries with those of their own country in respect to occu- 
pations, religion, government, race, and state. 

Plan-Draiving. — Before maps of unknown places are 
drawn or studied, careful attention should be given to 
the drawling of plans, first in connection with lessons 
upon. Place.^ After drawing the outline of various sur- 
faces, and indicating the place of objects upon them, 
drawing to scale should be begun. One foot to the 
inch when drawn upon the board, or four feet to the 
inch when drawn upon the slate, may be a convenient 
scale for drawing the floor of the schoolroom. Do not 
assist the pupils much, neither allow them to be discour- 

1 p. 103. 



144 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

aged for want of assistance. When the floor of the room 
is carefully drawn, let the different objects — as the 
teacher's desk, stove, etc. — be indicated upon the j)lan. 
As the object is to associate representations with the 
things represented, the pupils should sometimes be 
called upon to point out, in the room, certain objects 
represented upon the plan. 

The first plans upon the board should always be made 
upon the north side of the room ; and if made upon 
the slate, the upper part of the slate should be toward 
the north. By degrees the pupils may learn that the 
■ upper side of the slate or plan represents north, the 
lower side south, the right-hand side east, the left- 
hand side west. Objects in the room may now be 
indicated in the plan by dictation, as follows : Draw 
the platform on the west end ; the stove four feet 
from the north side ; the ventilator near the south-east 
corner, etc. 

Passing from the room, the next step will be to draw 
the school grounds and neighborhood. Here the prog- 
ress should be slow, and the steps carefully taken, for 
there are many important points to be presented, — direc- 
tion of streets, brooks, and fences, and the location of 
houses, ponds, hills, etc. A progressive plan may be 
made, with the schoolhouse as a centre, the pupils 
drawing, day by day, three or four additional objects, 
until a complete plan of the neighborhood is made. 
After this, good maps of the town and country should 
be studied carefull}^ and those places which the pupils 
have seen be particularly noted. There should be a 
good map of the town and adjoining towns hung up 
in the schoolroom for occasional reference. If such a 



1 



GEOGEAPHY. 145 

map is not provided, one may be made upon manilla 
paper or upon' the blackboard. 

Much of the plan-drawing should be done in the 
third year, in connection with the study of local or 
home geography ; but it should be reviewed occasion- 
ally in the fourth year, that good ideas of maps may be 
had before the pupil draws maps of continents and 
countries. 

As a means of reviewing the subjects which have been 
taught in the preparatory lessons, and of introducing 
the pupils to the use of topics, topical outlines for the 
study of the town should be given. These topics may 
include terms which have been taught, and the pupils 
should be encouraged to use geographical language in 
their recitation, Avhich should be made without ques- 
tions. The following topics, so far as they belong to 
the town studied, may be used : — 

1. Outline : boundary (ba3^s, capes). 

2. Size : length and breadth. 

3. Surface; — 

(1) jNIountains, hills, ranges, peaks. 

(2) Valleys, plains. 

4. Drainage : — 

(1) Brooks, rivers : 

Source, outlet, branches. 

(2) Ponds, lakes : 

Outlets, inlets. 

5. Climate : — 

Moisture, temperature. 

6. Soil. 

7. Productions : — 

Animal, vegetable, mineral. 

8. Industries. 



148 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

9. Exports and Imports : — 
Kailroads. 
10. Interesting facts of history. 

Study of Maps. — The study of maps of kno-wn places 
may well follow the preparatory observation lessons, 
and should precede the study or drawing of maps of 
continents and countries. The maps studied should be 
of places with which the pupils are familiar, or which 
they have seen. They should be studied with reference 
to relative distances (scale) and the location of known 
objects. They should be compared with maps made by 
the pupils, and be a means of reviewing lessons upon 
physical features. 

Moulding-Board, — Moulding has the same place in 
teaching geography as plan and map drawing ; i.e.^ for 
illustration. It may be used in teaching the natural 
bodies of land and water, and other parts of local 
geography after the real objects have been observed ; also 
in making relief models and in representing the parts 
of a continent or section. It will be found especially 
useful in representing the physical features of a town, 
adding with bits of cardboard and sticks the principal 
roads, houses, etc. 

GENERAL LESSONS FROM GLOBE AND MAPS. 

Earth as a Whole. — In the fourth year, elementary les- 
sons upon the globe should be begun. The subjects to 
be taught at this time are as follows : — 

1. Form of the Earth. 

Ilkistrate with clay or croquet ball flattened at two opposite 
sides. 



GEOGRAPHY. 147 

2. Motions of the Earth. 

Use knitting-needle or wooden needle for «x?',<?, and teach 
the effects of rotation and revolution. Only the most 
general and simple facts should be taught at this time. 
Teach equator, poles, and hemisphere. 

3. Land and Water HEMisrnEREs. 

Draw a line around a globe so as to lead pupils to see that 
most of the land is in one hemisphere and most of the 
water in another. f 

4. XORTHERN AND SOUTHERN HEMISPHERES. 

Show with a globe the relative amount of land and water 
north and south of the equator. 

5. Eastern and Western Hemispheres. 

AVhy called old and new worlds ? 

6. Bodies of La^d. 

The names and relative size and position of the coutiuents 
should be taught from a mapped globe. Lead the 
pupils to discover similarity and difference in shape, and 
character of outline. 

7. Bodies of Water. 

Teach the name and relative size and position of the 
oceans from the globe. Lead the pupils to see w^hich 
are in the Eastern, and which in the AVestern Hemisphere. 

8. Climate, 

Hot, cold, and temperate parts. 

9. Productions and Commerce. 

A few of the principal productions should be named and 
the climate and localities in which they are produced. 
Some ideas of commerce, both domestic and foreign, 
should be given by showing where and how the various 
productions are carried. 

Some of these elementary lessons may best be given 
by d^a^ying with a crayon npon a plain black globe. 

Contine7its. — When the first lessons upon the earth 
as a whole are completed, the study of continents should 



148 METHODS OF TEACHI^^G. 

be begun. Books may now be placed in the hands of 
pupils, but every lesson should first be taught from a 
mapped globe or a good outline map. 

An introduction to the map of the hemispheres and 
continents is made by opening a globe so that its hemi- 
spheres may be placed side by side, and be compared 
with outline maps of the same. 

In these lessons only the most general features should 
be considered, somewhat as follows : — 

(1) Position of continent on globe: show what part is hot, 
cold, temperate ; direction from other continents. (2) Relative 
size : compare with other continents. (3) Outline : character of 
coast line compared with other continents ; principal indentations ; 
outline drawn by pupils from cardboard models. [See Map- 
Drawing.] (4) Mountain systems . approximate length and width; 
comparative height ; direction of slopes. (5) Principal rivers and 
lakes : only a few of the largest ; source and outlet ; relative 
length. (6) Most valuable productions • where obtained. (7) Im- 
portant countries ; position in continent ; comparative size. (8) 
Best known cities: position; comparative size. (0) People : races; 
occupations. [Reading of such books as "Seven Little Sisters" 
and " Each and All."] (10) Special and peculiar features. 

After one continent has been studied, points of re- 
semblance and difference should be constantly referred 
to, as direction and length of mountain systems, size of 
rivers, condition of people, etc. In giving the special 
and peculiar features of a continent, select those which 
will be of most interest to the pupils, as volcanoes, pyr- 
amids, curious animals and plants. 

After the outline is traced, it may be kept for the 
purpose of inserting the various features as they are 
studied. The order of study is indicated in the follow- 



GEOGRAPHY. 149 

ing topics, which may need some changes and additions 
for some of the continents. 

I. Position. 
Surrounding water and land. 
Latitude, zones. 
11. Contour. 

Comparative shape, regularity of coast line. 

III. Size, compared with other continents. 

IV. Surface. 

-, Tj- 1 1 1 S mountains. 

1. Highlands : ■< 

( plateaus. 

2. Lowlands: ^'^^ll^J^- 

C plains. 

V. Inland Waters. 
Large lakes and rivers. 
VI. Climate. 

Comparative temperature and moisture. 
VII. Productions. 

Vegetable, animal, mineral. 
VIIL People. 

Races, emi^loyments, and customs. 
IX. Political Divisions. 
Countries, large cities. 

Countries and Sections. — After the general features 
of the continents have been studied, the more impor- 
tant countries and sections should be taken up, begin- 
ning with the United States. The sections should be 
studied and recited by topics as before, the topics being 
more minute than those of the continents. The study 
should also be pursued in connection with map-drawing. 
The pupils' own State and section should be known 
much more thoroughly than other sections, and should 
therefore be reviewed more frequently. The indus- 
tries, states of society, commerce, etc., of other coun- 



150 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

tries should be constantly compared with those of our 
own country, so as to make the facts learned seem as 
real as possible. 

Interesting facts of history also should be given in 
connection with places, and, in studying about the cities 
and productions of a country and the occupations of 
the people, constant reference should be made to the 
marine column of the daily or weekly newspaper, where 
will be found the destination of vessels and the ports 
from which vessels have sailed, together with what is 
exported and imported. 

Frequent use of pictures should be made in teaching 
the physical features of a country, its cities, and the 
manners, customs, and occupations of the people. Scrap- 
books or alphabetical letter-files may be used, for the pur- 
pose of preserving pictures cut from illustrated books 
and papers. With the aid of pupils any teacher can 
make a large collection of pictures which will be of 
great value in giving interest and vividness to the sub- 
jects taught. Care should be taken to so arrange the 
pictures that those of a particular section can be easily 
found at any time. 

In teaching and in giving information in any part of 
geography, let the facts be linked together as much as 
possible, especially the facts of cause with those of effect. 
Thus there should be given the names and descriptions 
of animals together with the climate and physical fea- 
tures of the country in which thej^ live; the position of 
a country, and its climate ; the commercial and manufac- 
turing cities, and their peculiar location with reference 
to mines, rivers, etc. ; the physical conditions of a coun- 
try, and the character of the people. 



GEOGRAPHY. 15 1 

On many accounts it will be better to take up large 
sections for study rather than small sections or single 
states. Among the advantages of studying large sec- 
tions are (1) the relative size and position of the states 
may be better observed ; (2) the climate, soil, and pro- 
ductions may be better compared and remembered; (3) 
trivial and unimportant details are less likely to be 
dwelt upon. The last point is one of great importance. 
The really important features of any distant state or 
country are few, and the time and strength of the pupils 
should be given to these to the exclusion of such details 
as the heights of mountains, the length of rivers, abso- 
lute areas, capes, small rivers, and insignificant towns. 
In general it may be said that those features of a coun- 
try or section should be most emphasized which most 
affect and represent the life of the country and which 
most concern ourselves both as a country and as indi- 
viduals. With this view, topics relating to life should be 
especially noticed in the study, such as climate and its 
causes, occupations and habits of the people, land and 
water communications and what is carried over them, 
government, and important cities. Certain sections 
also demand more attention than others, depending 
upon their importance and their relation and near- 
ness to us. Xext to our own State and country, those 
countries should be most carefully studied which have 
most to do wdth us and which are the most higlily 
civilized. 

The following topics may be a guide for study and 
recitation upon countries and sections: — 



152 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

I. Position. 

1. Boundaries : ^ ^^^^^• 

c water. 

2. Latitude, longitude, zone. 

II. Size. 

1. Length and breadth. 

2. Eehitive size. 

III. Surface. 

f systems. 

r mountains: <! ^'^^'^S^^' 
L Highlands:-! ^^'''^'^ 

L plateaus. ^ (volcanoes). 

2. Lowlands. 

Plains: I ^"^^^■^^^•- 
( coast. 

IV. Drainage. 

1. AVater-partings. 
source. 



^ -r,. I direction. 

2. Kiver 



r 

principal branches. 



3. Lakes. 

Location: i ^^^*- 
( fresh. 

V. Climate. 

r temperature. 
1. Kind ■ 



[ : -l moisture. 
I healthfuhiess. 



f latitude. 

I elevation. 

2. Causes : <^ . S ^^i'- 

] currents : ] 
I ( water. 

l^ nearness to sea. 

VL Productions. 

L Fertile and sterile sections. 

2. Mineral, vegetable, animal. 



GEOGRAPHY. 153 

VII. People. 

1. Races. T agriculture. 

2. Occupatious : -j manufactures. 

^ commerce : 

domestic, foreign, 
exports — where sent, 
imports — from wliat place, 
means : 

railroads, rivers, etc. 

3. INIanners and customs. 

4. Education. 

5. Government. 

6. Religion. 

VIII. Political Divisions. 
States. 

Important cities and towns. 
For what noted? 

Mathematical and Physical Features. — In addition 
to the elemeiitrtiy lessons upon the earth as a wliole, 
given in the foni'th year, there should be given in the 
higher grades more advanced lessons, including motions 
of the earth, latitude, longitude, and some physical 
features. As much of the following outline as can be 
understood should be taught in the sixth and seventh 
years, the more difficult subjects to be left until the 
first part of the eighth year, when the whole should be 
reviewed. The facts learned should be applied to par- 
ticular sections as they are taken up. 

I. Form or the Earth. 

Four proofs. 
II. jMotions of the Earth. 
1. Rotation (evidences). 
Axis, poles, equator. 



154 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

Effects of rotation : 

a. with axis horizontal. 

b. with axis upright. 

c. with axis oblique. 
2. Revolution (evidences). 

Effects of revolution : 

a. with axis upright. 

b. with axis oblique. 

Tropics and polar circles : cause of location. 
Zones, parallels, meridians. 

Variation in the length of day and night in different 
parts of the earth. 

III. Latitude and Loxgitude. 

1. Length of degree on large circles ; on small circles. 

2. Latitude; measured where and from what? 

3. Longitude; measured where and from what? 

4. Difference in longitude and time. 

IV. Land Surface. 

1. Formation of continents. 

2. Coral formations. 

3. Volcanic effects. 

4. Causes of depression and elevation of surface. 

V. AVlNDS, 

L General cause- 

2. Kinds and causes of each : 

(1) Trade winds. 

(2) Monsoons. 

(3) Cyclones. 

(4) Local winds. 

3. Uses of winds. 
VI. Water Movements. 

1. Springs: kinds and causes. 

2. Waves, what and how caused. 

3. Tides: 

Kinds, causes of each. 

4. Ocean currents : 

(1) Kinds and causes. 

(2) Polar and equatorial. 



GEOGRAPHY. 155 

(3) Principal currents , . 

(4) Influence in navigation. 

(5) Influence upon climate. 

(6) Take imaginary voyages to show effects of ocean 

currents. 
YII. Climate. 

Formation of dew, mist, fog, clouds, rain, snow, frost, hqil. 

Amount of rain, how affected in various parts of the earth. 

Temperature depends upon what. 
VIII. Soil (sub-soil). 

1. Thickness. 

2. Composition. 

(1) Loam. 

(2) Sand. 

(3) Gravel. )- Character of each. 

(4) Clay. 

(5) Organic matter. 
8. How made. 

(1) Water freezing in crevices of rocks. 

(2) Effects of atmosphere. 

(3) Effects of running water. 

(4) Effects of roots and rain. 

(5) Effects of insects. 

4. Kinds. 

(1) Calcareous. >> 

(2) Sandy. } Character, and how made. 

(3) Clayey. J 

5. Fertility. 

(1) Depends upon what. 

(2) Degree of fertility. 

6. Adaptation of soil to different plants. 

These subjects should be carefully taught each day 
before they are ''studied" in a book. For means of 
illustrating and teaching some of the topics the teacher 
should consult good reference books and use simple 
apparatus. 



156 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

To teach the motions^-of the earth and then- effects 
m producmg a variation in the length of day and night 
and change of seasons, use a ball with a cardboard disk 
to separate the light and dark heunspheres. The ball 
should have a knitting-needle for an axis, and be placed 
in various positions before a lighted lamp to represent 
the sun. By rotating the ball with the axis in an up- 
right and in a horizontal position, and placing tlie disk 
between the light and dark hemispheres, there may be 
shown the lighted hemispheres and the relative length 
of day and night, if the axis of the earth were in those 
positions. Incline the axis 23J degrees towards the 
north, making both motions of the ball (rotation and 
revolution), and there are represented many useful 
facts, such as the relative length of day and night in 
difterent parts of the earth, three causes of change of 
seasons, cause of position of tropics and polar circles, 
difference of longitude and time, and the position of the 
sun in various parts of the earth at different times of 
the year. To teach some of these and other points, it 
would be well to have a blacked ball upon which chalk- 
marks may be made. 

To teach the causes of winds, place a bit of lighted 
candle on a piece of glass. Over it place a lamp-chim- 
ney so that the chimney will project over the edge of 
the glass. By holding a thread at the bottom and at 
the top of the chimney, the facts may be observed that 
cold air moves toward the flame below, and that warm 
air ascends. From this illustration, and from others 
showing the unequal heating of the earth's surface by 
the sun, the pupils may learn the causes of some local 
winds, and of the surface and upper currents, north and 



GEOGRAPHY. 157 

soutli, clianged by the rotation of the earth into con- 
stant northeast and southeast winds, or trade winds. 

Map-Drawing". — After careful practice in plan- 
drawing, and observation of good ma])S of the town and 
county, the pu[)ils are prepared to begin tlie drawing of 
maps. In giving the first lessons upon continents the 
globe should be used, and it ^vould be well for the teaclier 
to prepare pasteboard outlines of the continents. These 
outlines wdll give a good idea of the relative shape and 
size of the continents, and afford at the same time 
models for tracing. When the outline of a continent is 
traced, the different parts may be represented as they 
are studied, as mountain systems, rivers, and produc- 
tions. 

In the sixth year, when the stud}" of the United States 
is taken, the pupils should draw the outline, first by 
copying, and afterwards from memory. Fine and 
artistic efforts should not be attempted in any part of 
the course, — the object being merely to fix in the mind 
facts that are learned. Direction, distance, and loca- 
tion are in this way impressed upon the mind as they 
can be in no other way. The first efforts in imitation 
may be by tracing upon thin paper. Afterwards the 
pupils may attempt to copy wdth the map before them, 
and then see what they can do from memory. The first 
attempts at memory drawing will be very crude, but the 
pupils should be encouraged to tr}^ and generally it will 
be found to be agreeable employment. The first topic 
in the study of the United States will be " outline." 
At the time of recitation each pupil may draw the 
outline upon the slate or board from memory, and indi- 
cate the boundaries — natural and artificial — bv initial 



158 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

letters. For exp.mple, Gulf of Mexico, Chesapeake 
Bay, and New Brunswick may be indicated by G. M., 
C. B., N. B. Day by day the ujap should grow as new 
topics are taken up. A ^^I'ogressive map may be kept 
by the pupils on paper or placed upon the board; but 
they should be ready to draw each day all that has been 
previously studied ; so that at the close of the lessons a 
completed map may be made by every pupil, embracing 
the principal mountains, rivers, cities, and production 
areas. 

In the seventh year, when latitude and longitude 
have been studied, the pre[)aratory studj^ may include 
parallels and meridians. With tlie book open, the 
teacher by skilful questioning may draw out from the 
pupils many facts in regard to distances and latitude; 
afterwards by a little direction the pu[)i]s may draw, 
free-hand, the parallels and meridians, which will be 
sufficiently accurate for all practical purposes. They 
will then be prepared to draw the outline, imitating the 
map in the book. When this has been done two or 
three times, the map may be drawn from memor}^ 
witJiout the parallels and meridians. In recitation, also, 
the drawing of parallels and meridians from memory 
should not be attempted, the outline only being drawn, 
with no construction lines. In the pupils' study, in 
which the map is draAvn by parallels and meridians, the 
shape and relative dimensions of the country are im- 
pressed upon the mind, and when they draw the outline 
from memory, the shape and dimensions are found to 
be sufficiently accurate. 

It may be well sometimes to indicate the high and 
low land by different colored crayons, as for instance, 



GEOGRAPHY. 159 

sliades of brown and green. When the topic "produc- 
tions " is reached, areas of the principal products 
may be indicated by enclosed lines. The climate and 
animals of a given section may be indicated hy small 
printed or -written words. 

Memory maps of any given subject, such as surface, 
drainage, productions, or cities, may be called for at any 
time, and the pupils by constant practice should be 
ready to answer the demand. For example, a riv^r 
map of Europe may be drawn from memory, as a review 
lesson, the names or tl.eir initials being Avritten or 
printed. In the same way examinations may be made. 
More can be indicated upon a map in a single hour than 
could be written out in three hours. 

It will be seen that the drawing of maps, both in 
study and recitation, constitutes an important part of 
the work in geography as here laid down. Tlie reasons 
for emphasizing map-drawing will become apparent as a 
saving of time, an increased interest in the study, and 
suj)erior results are seen. 

The Recitation. — What has been said of the advan- 
tages of topical study and recitation applies with pecu- 
liar force to geography. Outlines, more or less minute, 
should be given to the class as a guide to study. The 
same outlines should also be a guide ?o each pupil's 
recitation, the teacher giving as little assistance as pos- 
sible. A review of the previous lesson or lessons may 
be given during the first few minutes of the recitation, 
so as to connect together related subjects. 

When a pupil has told all that he can of a given topic, 
encourage the rest of the pupils to ask questions of the 
one who has recited. It will, of course, be understood 



160 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

that tlie answers to such questions, as well as the facts 
given in recitation, need not necessarily be found in the 
text-book, but may be gathered from all reference books 
to which the pupils have access. Very often a part of 
the class may be sent to the board, and the rest take 
slates, for the purpose of drawing the outline of the 
country studied, and indicating, or representing, such 
facts as have been learned, as mountains, rivers, cities, 
etc., each pupil reciting as all draw. In drawing the 
outline of a country, for example, one pupil may men- 
tion the body of adjacent water or land and the direc- 
tion of the boundary line as the class draw; then 
another pupil may continue the description. They may 
proceed in like manner with the other toj^ics, following 
the order in which they were learned. In this form of 
recitation it will be seen that the teacher says very lit- 
tle, most of the talking being done by the pupils. 

The question and answer method, by which the teacher 
uses many more words than the pupils, should very 
rarely be used. After a country has been studied, a 
page of map-questions may be given out for a lesson. 
In the recitation of such a lesson one pupil may read 
the questions for the pupils whom the teacher designates 
to answer. Oi^each pupil may be asked to write five 
questions, and after he has answered one he may give 
another to another pupil, naming the pupil who is to 
answer after the question is given. 

In the map-questions and in other lessons the outline 
wall-maps may sometimes be used, one pupil pointing 
out the places named. Generally, however, the answers 
should be given without the map being in sight. An 
occasional exercise with the outline map will be found 



GEOGRAPHY. 161 

2)iofitable, in which the teacher points upon the map to 
certain places, which the pupils name or about which 
they tell what they know. 

Geographical Reading-. — After a subject or country 
has been studied by topics, there should be class readhig 
of journej's and other descriptions for the purpose of 
gaining interesting and useful information. At least 
one-third of the time given to geography, and some of 
the time set apart for supplementary reading, should be 
given to such reading. It is not necessary for every 
pupil in the class to have a book. Three books, or even 
one book, passed from one pupil to anothei', will suffice. 
Half a dozen good books of travel upon the countries 
studied should be accessible to every teacher of the 
grammar grade. They will do much to give interest to 
the study and direct the future reading of the pupils. 



162 METHODS OF TEACHING. 



HISTORY. 



The chief objects to be kept in mind in teaching his- 
tory are : (1) to create an interest in history and a taste 
for reading it; (2) to teach important facts of history 
so that they will be remembered ; (3) to show the relation 
of jjast events to the present in such a way as to prepare 
pupils for the varied duties of life ; (4) to cultivate the 
powers of memory, imagination, and reflection; (5) to 
cultivate language. 

Preparatory Work. — Story-telling and story-read- 
ing should precede the formal study of history, and may 
be begun very early in the course. True stories of cele- 
brated persons, especially of their child life, will be 
interesting and instructive to children of the primary 
school. During the fourth and fifth jenYS in school the 
stories should continue to be largely about persons, and 
may be somewhat disconnected ; that is, no special ef- 
fort need be made to follow in chronological order the 
history of our country, the main purpose being to make 
enduring impressions upon the pupils, of the principal 
characters in history, and to create an interest in them. 
The story may be sometimes told by the teacher, and 
sometimes read after a few of the principal facts have 
been told. Sometimes one pupil may read the story to 
the rest, and sometimes — perhaps oftener than in any 
other way — the pupils may read in turn at sight. All 
of these exercises should be followed by talking and 
writing upon the subjects given, in order to encourage 
attention, to fix the points in the minds of pupils, and to 
cultivate the power of expression. 



HISTORY. 163 

During the sixth and seventh 3'ears in school, story 
telling and reading should be continued, but in a more 
systematic manner and with a wider purpose in view 
than during tlie preceding years. To teach what history 
is, and to lead the pupils into tlie possession of histori- 
cal ideas as a basis for subsequent study, will now be 
the purpose of the teacher. Ideas of peaceful life, of 
war, and of government, are best gained by observation 
of present affairs, by reading and hearing what has 
transpired in the past, and by comparing what is heard 
with what is known from observation. 
• Begin, then, by calling the attention of pupils to the 
necessary accompaniments of peaceful life, — useful em- 
ployments, schools, government, religion, etc. Lead 
them to state in detail what they see in every-day life 
about them, and what is transpiring at the present time 
in places remote from them. Several talks of tliis kind 
will bring out all the essential ideas of peaceful life, and 
make the pupils realize that history is a real thing of 
the present as well as of the remote past. When this 
has been done, lead them to compare the present condi- 
tion of their neighborhood and country with what it 
was in early colonial times. Have them read stories 
of the early settlements, dwelling especially upon the 
privations that were endured, the absence of schools, 
railroads, and telegraph, the primitive home life, and 
the means of travel. 

The local history of the town or neighborhood should 
be first considered. There are few places which have 
not most interesting stories connected with them. The 
more personal and real these stories are, the better. 
After the pupils have read and talked about the early 



164 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

history of. their own neighborliood and State, let them 
do the same \vitli the histoiy of other phices, it being 
kept constantly in mind that the story should convey a 
vivid impression of real life. Pictures will aid the pupil 
to get a clear idea of some things wliich cannot be well 
described by words. Photographs of places, and pic- 
tures cut from illustrated papers and pasted upon card- 
board, coins, and relics of every description, — all will 
be found to be a valuable aid to the teacher of history. 

The same method of teaching ideas of war should be 
used as is used in teaching ideas of peace. In the stories 
read and talked about, the causes of wars, their necessity, 
and the methods of warfare should be considered. It 
would not be well at this stage to dwell much in detail 
upon campaigns and battles. 

Ideas of government, the objects of government, the 
different kinds of government, and the duties of citizens, 
should be taught in connection with stories illustrating 
both peace and war, and with what exists in their own 
town, State, and countr}^ 

During the latter part of the seventh year, one ele- 
mentary book of United States history may be read 
through in regular order, for the purpose of getting a 
connected account. As before, the reading should be 
followed by talking and writing, in which the principal 
events are brought out clearly in the pupils' own lan- 
guage. All the while, the geography of the section 
talked about should be carefully studied from outline 
maps. Progressive maps, with changes in the boundary, 
may be drawn by the pupils. Chronological tables may 
also be made, consisting of the dates of the most impor- 
tant events. If the dates of five- or six events of a 



HISTORY. 165 

century are kept in mind, all other events maybe distin- 
guished as occurring before or after one of these dates. 
Fur example, if the time of the landing of the Pilgrims 
is known, some other events could be remembered as 
occurring either before or after that event. 

Topical Study. — At the beginning of the eighth year 
in school, liistoiy sliould be taken up as a distinct 
study. Instead of one book being used for study, it is 
better to have several, each pu})il deriving the benefit 
of the study of others from different bouks. Topics 
should be arranged carefully by the teacher, and placed 
upon the blackboard. These topics can be copied by 
the pupils into topic-books provided for the purpose. 
Some time will be needed and not a little direct assist- 
ance before the pupils can use the topics as they shcmld 
be used in stud}^ and before they can give long and 
connected statements in their own words. 

The following general outline may be a guide of work 
to be attempted during the eighth and ninth years: — 

I. America uefore Columbus. 

Traces of inliahitants : Xorthiiieii. 

II. DiSCOVEKERS AND EXPLORERS. 

1. Spanish. ^ 

"" ^"S ^'^' y Important discoveries and explorations. 

3. French. 

4. Dutch. J 

III. English Settlers. 

1. In Xew England. 

2. In Middle States. 

3. In Southern States. 

(1) Permanent settlements. 

(2) Cause of settlers coming. 

(3) Life of people. 

Manners, customs, laws, religion. 



166 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

(4) Government. 

(5) Growth and change during colonial period. 

(6) Wars. 

IV. The French in North America. 
V. The Revolution. 
VI. The Confederation. 

1. Reasons for. 

2. Principal events. 

3. Defects. 

VII. The United States. 

1. The Constitution. 

(1) Formation and adoption. 

(2) Features. 

(3) Amendments. 

2. Presidential administrations. 

(1) When begun, length. 

(2) Principal events. 

3. Internal progress. 

(1) Population. 

(2) Industries. 

(0) Productions. 

(4) Exports. 

(5) Education. 

(6) Inventions. 

4. Wars. 

(1) England (1812). f ^''"'^; 
)^; ,, '^. ^ ^1 Duration. 

(2) Mexico. -^ 1) ■ • 1 i 
;./ „. ., 1 Principal events. 

(•^) C'"'- [ Result. 

The topics of the general outline will have to be 
elaborated somewhat as the various subjects are 
reached. The following topics, for example, may be 
given upon "The French in No^ith America." 

1. The territory acquired. 

(1) What region. 

(2) By whom discovered and settled. 



HISTORY. 167 

(3) First settlements. 

(4) Time (relative). 

2. Government. 

(1) Kind. 

(2) Results. 

3. Loss of territory. 

(1) Claims. 

(2) Allies. 

(8) Opponents. 

(4) Parts abandoned, and when. 

The following topics for the study of wars may be 
used : — 

1. Parties. 

2. Cause. 

3. Occasion. 

4. Elements of strength and weakness. 

5. Tfie campaigns. 

(1) Plan. 

a. Objective points. Where? Why? 
I. Routes. 

c. Forces and commanders. 

d. Advantages and difficulties. 

(2) ]\Iovements. 

(3) Decisive battles. 

(4) Results. 

(5) Consequences. 

6. Results of the war. 

7. Consequence?- of the war. 

The Recitation A short time should be taken at 

the beginning of each recitation for reviewing such 
topics of past lessons as have any connection with the 
lessons of the day. Such reviews will also fix in mind 
the important facts which have been studied. 

To bring out the points clearly, and to make the 
study interesting, maps and diagrams should be in con- 



168 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

stant use in tlie recitation. Engraved maps may be 
consulted, but special attention should be given to the 
drawing of maps by the pupils. Progressive maps, or 
maps which grow with the study of a section, may be 
made from day to day, and the pu[)ils should be ready 
to draw at any time rapid sketches, which will illus- 
trate the relative position of places, the movements of 
armies, or the growth of territory. 

In recitation, the pupil should be expected to take a 
topic and tell, in his own language^ what he has ascer- 
tained in regard to it, with as little interruption as pos- 
sible. After he has finished his statement, the other 
pupils may add anything which has been omitted, cor- 
rect any misstatement which has been made, or ask 
questions to bring out the points moie clearly. If 
there are several different books in the liands of the 
class, the statements made by the various members will 
vary considerably. One will give a story not told by 
the pupil who first recited. Another will show the re- 
lation which the event described bears to others. Still 
another will derive from the event a practical lesson for 
our own people and time. All will help to make the 
story more complete and more likely to be remembered. 
Emphasize especially those features which are directly 
related to present affairs, or which may lead the 
pupils into a higher appreciation of their duties as 
citizens, and give them a better understanding of those 
duties. 

A recitation in history properly conducted will en- 
courage the pupils to gather information from all avail- 
able sources. The gazetteer, cyclopaedia, biographies, 
and histories of various kinds will be sought and read 



HISTORY. 169 

for the purpose of gaining and giving all possible infor- 
mation upon the topics to be recited. Such study and 
recitation will encourage a spirit of investigation and 
tend to the formation of a habit of using reference 
books, wliich will be of incalculable service to pupils 
after they leave school. 

Selections of poetry and prose bearing upon the sub- 
jects studied may be memorized and recited with great 
profit to the pupil. Patrick Henry's "Appeal" and 
Mrs. Hemans's ''Pilgrim Fathers" have done more for 
some pupils than all else they have studied. Feelings 
of patriotism mii}^ be excited and the imagination may 
be stirred in this as in no other way. 

Topical Reviews. — In tlie latter part of the ninth 
3^ear, and occasionally at other times, topical reviews 
should be given consisting of the details of a single sub- 
ject. The following outlines may be suggestive of the 
manner of taking up reviews in which the history 
of a single subject is traced with comparatively few 
details : — 

INDIANS. 

1. What tei-ritory occupied, past and present. 

2. Mode of living. 

3. Claims to the soil. 

4. Government sujiport. 

5. Present condition and prospects. 

SLAVERY. 

1. Origin. 

2. Slave trade. 

3. Elarly opposition. 

4. Recognition in Constitution. 

5. Louisiana pui-chase. 

6. Missouri Compromise. 



170 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

7. Abolitionism. 

Garrison, Phillips. 
John Brown, Lovejoy. 
Emancipation. 
By individuals. 
By state. 
By country. 

EXTENSION OF TEERITORY AND SETTLEMENT. 

1. Settlement of Kentucky and Tennessee. 

2. Settlement of the Northwest. 

3. Louisiana purchase. 

4. Florida purchase. 

5. Settlements west of the Mississippi. 

6. Annexation of Texas. 

7. Mexican War. 

8. Settlement of the Pacific coast. 

9. Purchase of Alaska. 

10. Settlement of the Southwest. 

Biographical reviews, especiall}^ of the lives of those 
persons who have had a prominent part in the affairs 
of the country, will also be found interesting and use- 
ful. Many of the leading features of history will in 
this way be brought out clearly and be connected in 
such a way as to make them remembered. The follow- 
ing names are suggested for review: — 

John Smith, Columbus, Cabot, Cortez, La Salle, AYolfe, Wash- 
ington, Braddock, Lafayette, Franklin, Adams, Putnam, Jefferson, 
Madison, Clay, AVebster, Scott, Lincoln, Grant, Garfield. 

In these later lessons upon a country, it will be well 
to encourage the pupils to ask questions in recitation, 
the answers to which they have previously looked up. 
Much interest will in this way be developed and the 



HISTORY. 171 

pnpils will be encouraged to consult reference books at 
home, in the public library, and in the schoolroom. 

Historical Reading-. — One of the chief objects of 
the study of history in school is to awaken an interest in 
the subject to such an extent as to induce persons to 
read good books of history and biography after they 
have left scliool. Doubtless this object is gained, to a 
great extent, by following good methods of study and 
by frequently reading good books in school. Yet more 
than this may be done, first by directing the outside 
reading of pupils, and secondly by encouraging such 
reading by means of special exercises. There should 
be given to the pupils a list of books, both of biography 
and history, suitable for them to read. If any of the 
books named are not in the public or school library, 
tlie teacher should use his influence to have them put 
there. Generally trustees of libraries are very glad of 
such suggestions, and are willing to co-operate with 
teachers in leading the young to read good books. 

A course of reading by subjects may be laid out for 
a term, and once a w^eek, perhaps on Friday afternoon, 
thirty or forty minutes may be well spent in question- 
ing pupils upon what they have reach For example, 
the subject for one week might be Tiie Mound- Builders. 
The pupils would be asked what they have read upon 
the subject during the past week or at any previous 
time. From one and another of the pujjils information 
of where the Mound-Builders lived, what they built, 
use of mounds, what is found in them, and wliere they 
are now seen, together with such a description of the 
utensils discovered as will lead the pu|)ils to infer the 
condition and occupations of this curious people. Such 



172 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

exercises help the pupils to gain valuable information, 
and will also stimulate them to read upon the subject 
to be discussed. 

Another means of stimulating pupils to read is to 
give out historical or biographical subjects for composi- 
tion. Knowing that they are to write upon a given 
subject, they will read with the view of gaining all the 
information they can. For some reasons it may be well 
to have such compositions written during a specified 
time in school. 

Historical Recreations. — It will be useful to take 
half an hour occasionally for a game or for miscella- 
neous questioning. One way of spending the time 
would be to have each pupil bring in five questions 
somewhat out of the usual course ; such as, ''Whose 
dying words were, 'Don't give up the ship'?" "Was 
Washington ever wounded in battle ? " " Who was 
'Rough and Ready'?" 

A useful game is to have each pupil assume some 
character of history, and by a story or a little account 
of himself lead others to guess who he is. Another 
game consists in having one of the pupils leave the 
room, while the others select for him some historical 
character. On his return he is to guess from the re- 
marks of his mates what character he represents. By 
careful management these games will prove profitable 
and interesting to all. 



PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 173 



PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 

• 
Hygiene, or a knowledge of the means of preserving 

health, should be esjDecially emphasized in the primary 
and grammar grades, aud only such parts of anatomy 
and physiology should be taught as will help- pupils to 
a good understanding of the laws of health. In the 
primary school, observation of external parts alone 
should be made ; and only as pupils are prepared to 
observe should the structure and function of the vari- 
ous internal orojans be tauo^ht. 

Means. — By means of parts of animals, procured at 
the butcher's, the structure of nearly all parts of the 
body can be taught. If a manikin is not provided, 
good anatomical charts should be near at hand for con- 
stant reference. As the various parts of the body are 
studied, their location should be pointed out by pupils, 
either upon their own bodies or upon the bodies of 
others. 

While books may be in the hands of pupils of the 
higher grades, the teacher should under no circum- 
stances allow the pupils to memorize and repeat what 
is not clearly understood. 

Outline and Methods. — Instead of laying down a 
definite amount for each term and year, the following 
general outline is given for the teachers of all grades 
above the primary. ^ Only the most general features of 
the subjects should be taken up in the lower grades, 
the study and observation being more minute as the 
pupils grow in maturity and in ability to comprehend 

1 The course for primary grades is given upon page 195. 



174 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

the functions of the various parts. For the daily study 
it will be necessary to subdivide the topics. 

A few suggestions in regard to yiethods of teaching 
are added to each subject. Other suggestions will be 
found in good text-books, several of which should be 
upon the teacher's table for reference. 

I. Waste 3Iatters of the Body. 

Show by observation that water and carbon constantly escape 
from the body through the breath, and that salt escapes by means 
of persj^iration. To show the existence of carbonic acid in the 
breath, breathe into lime-water, and observe the same effect as when 
lime-water is mixed with carbonic acid. This is shown by thrust- 
ing red-hot coal iuto a dry test-tube and adding lime-water to the 
gas generated. . 

II. Food and Drink. 

Show by observation and experiment the principal kinds of 
food, as the albuminous foods, sugars and starches, fats, and min- 
eral foods. Hints of methods will be found in any good text-book 
of physiology. In directing the observation of pupils, keep con- 
stantly in mind the purpose of showing what kind of food is best 
to build up tlie body, to repair waste, and to supply heat. 

III. Digestion and Assimilation. 

1. Organs and parts : — 

(1) Name; (2) location; (3) construction. 

2. Process of digestion. 

3. Hygiene. 

Conditions of health in respect to eating, drinking, and 
exercising. Effects of use of tobacco. 

Examine structure of teeth procured from a dentist ; also teeth 
of lower animals. For location and external shape, let the pupils 
look into one another's mouths, and, with the aid of a mirror, in 
their own mouths. Dissect a cat, rabbit, or frog, to see the loca- 



PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 175 

tion and structure of organs. JNIake drawings, and compare with 
chart. Get specimens from the butcher's, and examine structure. 
Examine bits of pig's stomach to see coats and openings of gastric 
tubes. 

Consult text-books for experiments to show the action of saliva, 
gastric juice, bile, and pancreatic juice upon various kinds of food. 
Lead pupils to know what food is most nutritious, and length of 
time taken for digestion. Let the pupils infer reasons for laws of 
health in relation to care of the teeth, manner of chewing the food, 
times of eating and exercising, kind of food to be eaten, times of 
drinking, etc. 

IV. Circulation. 

1. Organs and parts : — 

(1) Xame; (2) location; (3) construction; (4) function. 

2. Composition and uses of blood. 

3. Hygiene : — 

(1) Nature and causes of diseases of organs. 

(2) Health of organs in relation to food, exercise, clothing, 

and air. 

(3) The use of tobacco and alcohol. 

Dissect a sheep's heart to show its structure and the position of 
parts. Refer to text-book and chart for guide in dissecting and 
in finding the parts. Make drawings of parts discovered, and com- 
pare with chart. Observe with microscope the blood circulating 
in frog's foot. Listen with the stethoscope to the heart-beats. No- 
tice pulse in the wrist and in other parts of the body. For experi- 
ments to show the composition of the blood, consult good text- 
books. 

Y. Respiration. 

L Organs and parts : — 

(1) Name; (2) location; (3) construction; (4) function. 

2. Breathing: — 

Action of inspiration — expiration. 

3. Voice : — 

(1) Organs; (2) sound and speech. 



176 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

4. Hygiene: — • 

(1) Action of air in lungs. 

(2) Cause and prevention of disease; ventilation; disinfec- 

tants ; loose clothing ; exercise. 
Listen to resj^iratiou with stethoscope in inspiration and expira- 
tion. Note the difference. Examine carefully a sheep's lungs and 
windpipe attached. Distend lungs witii air, and examine. Exam- 
ine sheep's windpipe ; cut lengthwise in front and behind to show 
vocal cords ; notice the cartilages that form the larynx. 

VI. 3I'U soles mid Tendons. 

1. Structure and arrangement. 

2. Kinds. 

3. Action and use. 

4. Hygiene. 

Health and strength of muscles in relation to exercise, rest, 
food, pure air. 
Examine boiled lean beef to observe fibres, bundles, and con- 
nective tissue. Get sheep's leg with hoof on to show the struc- 
ture and action of tendons ; also, to show the contraction and 
relaxation of muscles. Examine the tendons of a fowl's leg and 
foot. Let the pupils locate muscles, and observe the action of 
tendons and muscles upon their own bodies. Let the pupils infer 
from the construction and use of muscles the need of exercise; 
also, the proper amount and kind of exercise. 

VII. Bones. 

1. The skeleton. 

2. Composition and structure. 

3. Periosteum. 

4. Cartilage. 

5. Joints and ligaments. 

6. General uses. 

7. Hygiene. 

Food; exercise. 

Dissolve mineral matter of bones by soaking them in weak 
muriatic acid. Destroy animal matter by burning. Examine 



PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 177 

bone with microscope. Examine partially decayed bone.. Cite 
instances to illustrate circulation of blood in bones and the growth 
of them. Have pupils infer the general uses. Examine with 
knife and forceps joints, coverings, and cartilage procured at the 
butcher's. 

In examining the skeleton, the number, form, and position of 
the bones should be noted, and so far as it seems best the name of 
each bone may be given. The common name should be given in 
preference to the scientific name. Encourage pupils to feel of 
bones to ascertain their shape in every part, and have them infer 
the motions and other uses of parts from a knowledge of their 
shape and structure. 

If the school does not own a skeleton, it may be borrowed from 
a physician. If none can be procured, examine bones of lower 
animals. Use charts constantly. 

VIII. Nervous System, 

1. Organs and parts : — 

(1) Name; (2) location; (3) construction; (4) function. 

2. Hygiene : — 

(1) Name and cause of disease. 

(2) Health of organs, how preserved. Occupation, recrea- 

tion, sleep. 

Dissect a calf's brain, and compare parts observed with diagram. 
Let pupils infer from the structure and function of the brain and 
nerves the need of rest and sleep, the time in which rest should be 
taken, the duration of mental exercise, and the kind of food and 
clothing needed. The effect of the use of tobacco and alcohol 
upon the nerves should be inferred from observation of its use, 
from what is known of the nei'vous system, and from familiar 
experiments. 



IX. Senses. 

1. Touch 

2. Sight 

3. Hearing 

4. Taste 



Organs and parts : — 
Structure. 
Function. 



5. Smell J ^^Siene. 



178 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

By experiment show what parts of the body are most sensitive. 
Let pupils inter tlie cause and reason. 

Show by experiments tlie assistance which the senses give one 
another in giving impressions. 

Dissect the eye of an ox or a codfish to observe the structure. 
Let the pupils infer from the structure causes of disease and the 
kind of cai"e which should be taken of the ej'es. 

X. Skin. 

1. Structure and use of parts: — • 

(1) Cuticle, hair, and nails ; (2) true skin ; (3) perspiration- 
tubes; (4) oil-tubes. 

2. Complexion. 

3. Hygiene: — 

(1) Diseases and their causes. 

(2) Healthy condition of skin in relation to general health. 

(3) Cleanliness; clothing. 

Examine skin with microscope. Scrape off cuticle with a sharp 
knife. Observe blisters and callous places. Examine perspiration- 
tubes on palm of hand with microscope ; also, hair and finger- 
nails. Let pupils infer from the use of parts the kind of care 
needed. » 

Dissection. — Reference has been made in the above 
outline to the dissection of a cat or rabbit. To do this 
well it will be necessary for the novice to get some 
assistance either from books or from some one who has 
had practice in dissecting. The following suggestions 
copied from TJie American Teacher may be of assistance 
to some teachers. 

[A blow on the temple will kill a rabbit ; for a cat, with its 
proverbial " nine lives," chloroform may be used. This can be 
given on a sponge, placing the animal in a close box, or by putting 
it down the throat by means of a pipette. Experience proves that 
the village doctor is often glad to encourage the study of physi- 
ology by thus preparing the animal for dissection. If the subse- 



PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIEN^E. 179 

quent work is tenderly and reverently done, — as it should always 
be, — the pupils will have a fuller appreciation of the " fearfid and 
wonderful " way in which the Creator has fashioned the human 
body than is j)ossible from the mere study of the book. No 
teacher should undertake this work who cannot thereby increase 
the reverence of his pupils for the "temple of the soul," and thus 
disarm all criticism upon dissection as "developing cruelty." 

Materials. — A rabbit or cat ; a board large enough to hold the 
animal when stretched out ; hammer and tacks ; a sharp knife and 
scissors ; a needle, strong thread, and a pair of light forceps.] 

1. Place the animal upon its back, on a board, holding it in 
position by driving a tack through each paw. 

2. Parting the fur, carefully slit the skin with the scissors from 
the neck to the posterior part of the chest; make short cross-cuts 
at the end of this slit, and draw back the skin with the fingers, 
being very careful not to disturb any of the tissues or organs 
beneath. 

3. See and feel the trachea and larynx under a thin layer of 
tissue ; note, on each side and "just behind the angle of the lower 
jaw," the external jugular veins. 

4. Between the trachea and each of these veins, just under the 
tissue layer, lies a muscle (stern o-mastoid). Study its position, 
and the meeting of the tw^o ;' the subject of muscles is often a 
puzzle to the pupil, his ideas thereon being very misty. 

5. Clear away on the left the thin layer of tissue, being very 
Cdbiceixxl not to prick a vein, so as to get blood upon the specimen. 
If any small branch must be cut, tie it in two places first, and cut 
between. Another muscle (the sterno-hyoid) will now be seen, 
between the sterno-mastoid and the trachea. Pull the latter muscle 
outward, trace slowly and carefully with the fingers through the 
connective tissue between the two nmscles, and the carotid artery 
and some large nerves will be found. Be sure that the pupils see 
the latter, and understand clearly that nerves are tangible cords, 
not mere " impressions." 

6. Cut the sterno-mastoid muscle where it joins the breast-bone, 
turn it one side, gently lift the carotid artery in your forceps and 
trace it forward, separating it with care from adjoining parts, till 
you reach its division at the angle of the lower jaw. Following 



180 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

up the external carotid artery, find the submaxillary gland, "a 
soft, roundish mass about the size of a hazel-nut." Note its 
slender duct passing into the mouth. A little farther along, the 
artery is crossed by a tendon and nerve. 

7. The large pneumogastric nerve is nearly parallel to the 
carotid artery ; upon it, near the skull, is a ganglion. 

8. Repeat this dissection on the right side, then cut across the 
inner ends of the muscles from the chest to the shoulders, and, 
turning them outward, note the arteries, veins, and nerves passing 
to the trunk and fore limbs. 

9. Raise the front end of the sternum in your f(?i-ceps, cut 
through the muscles and rib cartilages on each side, turn back the 
sternum, cut it across near the lower line of the chest cavity, and 
remove it. Notice the diaphragm (size and shape), the pericardium 
inclosing the heart, and the collapsed lungs. Carefully dissect 
away adjoining parts, turning heart and lungs as needed, so as to 
trace the main blood-vessels. 

10. Continue the cut of the skin into the wall of the abdomen, 
make cross-cuts, and reflect the skin and muscles. 

Note shape and position of the oesophagus, stomach, intestines, 
and liver. 

In many respects, the frog is the best animal from 
which to learn the strnctnre and arrangements of the 
internal organs of the human body. To kill the frog, 
put it into a little alcohol, or into a mixture of ether 
and water, in a closed bottle or fruit-jar. Lay aside the 
skin with a sharp knife, and lead the pupils to see and 
describe the arrangement of organs; also, so far as they 
are able, to examine tlie structure of each part. 

This work will be found very profitable, and is 
within the power of every teacher to do. 

Enierg-encies. — Special lessons should be given in 
the higher grades to show what may be done in times 
of emergency before the physician arrives. A knowl- 
edge of what to do when the body is cut or injured in 



PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 181 

any part, when poison is taken, and when a partially 
drowned person is taken from the water, might be the 
means of preserving a valuable life, and' at no time can 
such knowledge be more advantageously given than 
while the structure and functions of the organs are 
being taught. Detailed directions, found in any good 
text-book upon physiology, should be frequently re- 
viewed. 

Use of Tobacco. — In connection with the lessons 
in Physiology and Hygiene, the effects of the use of 
tobacco upon the system should be clearly and forcibly 
explained. The character of the constituents of tobacco 
— carbonic acid, ammonia, and nicotine — should be 
taught, and their effects upon the stomach, Inngs, blood, 
brain, and nerves, be made known. The teacher should 
dwell especially upon the harm which smoking and 
chewing tobacco have upon young people, not only in 
its physical effects on account of the delicacy of tissues, 
but also in its mental and moral effects. 

Use of Alcohol. — The effects of alcohol as a poison 
may sometimes be forcibly shown objectively, even to 
little children. In primary grades, however, most of 
the instruction in the effects of the use of alcohol must 
consist of citing exam})les of the direct injury which 
has been done, and of telling and reading proper 
stories. 

In the higher grades, in addition to the means em- 
ployed in the lower grades, more direct teaching of the 
subject may and should be done. The following out- 
line of lessons prepared by Mr. Arthur C. Boyden, of 
the Bridgewater (Mass.) State Normal School, show^s 
what may be done in the grammar school : — 



182 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

These lessons are intended to suggest a method of teaching the effects 
of alcohol on the human body. Each part of the subject is introduced by- 
simple experiments from which the teacher may derive the points to be 
impressed. For the grammar grade selection of the more important parts 
may have to be made, but for the higher grade all the points can be taught, 
understood, and explained. In the primary grade preparation for this 
work should be made by simple lessons on the parts and systems of the 
human body, and by stating in simple terms the more apparent facts in 
regard to the effects of alcohol. 

I. Origin of Alcohol. 

1. In Fermented Liquors. 

Experiments. — Exp. 1 . Add molasses to water in a bottle till 
it is of a deep brown color, then add a teaspoonful of yeast, allow 
it to stand in a warm place for a day or two. Obs. The mixture 
has the odor of alcohol, later a som-, acid odor ; the mixture has 
a sharp taste. Inf. The little yeast plant has changed the sugar 
of the molasses to alcohol; this will change to an acid if left alone. 
Call the yeast plant a "ferment," and the process of changing 
" fermentation." 

Exp. 2. Allow apple juice to stand exposed to the air for a few 
days. Obs. The liquid has the odor of alcohol, also the biting 
taste. Later it has a sour, acid taste like vinegar. Inf. Very 
small ferments from the air have changed the sugar of the apple 
juice to alcohol. Call the liquid "cidei." The alcohol will change 
to vinegar if left exposed to the air. 

Cider is formed by the fermentation of apple juice in the air. 

Wines are formed by the fermentation of grape juice, etc., in 
the air. 

Ales and Beers are formed by the fermentation of the sugar of 
grains. (INIalt liquors.) 

Alcohol is an essential constituent of all these fermented liquors. 
Nature will change it to an acid if left to itself. 

2. In Distilled Liquors. 

Exp. 3. Heat cider or wine in a test-tube over an alcohol lamp, 
pass the steam through a glass tube into a bottle which is wrapped 
in a wet cloth to condense this steam. Obs. The odor and taste 



PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 183 

are more marked tliaii in the fermented liquors ; often there is a 
bitter taste. Inf. The condensed liquor is stronger than the fer- 
mented liquor, and is changed into new substances oftentimes. 
Call this process of evaporating and condensing " distillation," and 
the resulting liquid a "distilled liquor." 

Brandy is distilled from wines. 

Gin is distilled from beer, and jflavored with juniper berries. 
Whiskey is distilled from the wort of fermented grain. 
Rum is distilled from fermented molasses. 



II. Properties and Uses of Alcohol. 

Exp. 4. Examine alcohol for its color, odor, and taste. Place 
a little on the hand. Obs. Alcohol is a transparent liquid, has a 
strong odor and a biting taste. Inf. The rapid evaporation of the 
alcohol makes the hand feel cool ; it is a volatile liquid. 

Exp. 5. Place a little in a spoon, apply a lighted match. Obs. 
It burns with a blue, hot flame. Inf. Alcohol is inflammable 
because it unites easily with tlie oxygen of the air. 

Exp. 6. Shake a little powdered resin in alcohol. Obs. The 
alcohol changes to the color of the resin ; finally the resin disap- 
pears. Inf. Some resinous substances are soluble in alcohol. 

Exp. 7. ]\Iix a little oil of turpentine with alcohol ; shake. Obs. 
The turpentine mixes with the alcohol. Inf. Alcohol will mix 
■with some oils. 

Exp. 8. Add alcohol to the white of an egg (albumen). Obs. 
The alcohol changes the moist mucilaginous albumen to a white, 
stringy solid. Call this "coagulation." Inf. Alcohol coagulates 
albuminous substances by extracting the water from them. 

Properties. — Alcohol is a transparent liquid, — odorous, — has 
biting taste, — is volatile. It dissolves many resinous substances 
— and mixes with most oils. It is inflammable — great affinity for 
oxygen. It coagulates albumen — attraction for water. 

Uses (resulting from these properties). — External application to 
allay inflammation. Alcohol lamps for heating purposes. A sol- 
vent for gums in preparing varnishes. In preparation of perfumeiy, 
medicine, etc. Preservation of museum specimens. 



184 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

III. Effects of Alcohol on the Human Body. 
1. Alcohol impairs Digestion. 

Exp. 9. Place with the finger a little alcohol on the inside 
membrane of the mouth (a mucous membrane) ; repeat this several 
times. Obs. The membrane stings, the saliva flows freely, finally 
there is a dry, puckery feeling. Inf. Alcohol inflames the mem- 
brane, excites the flow of the liquid which it secretes, and absorbs 
the moisture in it. 

Application. — The lining membrane of the mouth also lines the 
stomach and the other organs of the digestive system. A small 
amount of alcohol will cause a profuse flow of the gastric juice and 
passes very i-apidly into the blood. A larger amount inflames and 
irritates the lining membrane of the stomach. A continued use 
weakens the quality of the gastric juice by the unusual and irregu- 
lar flow, also impoverishes the blood from which it comes. It irri- 
tates the constantly inflamed membrane of the stomach, leading to 
an ulcerous condition and chronic inflanmiation. (See Dr. Sewall's 
diagrams, p. 44 of the Standard League Documents, No. 3, 36 
Bromfield Street, Boston.) 

Exp. 10. Add alcohol to raw meat; also rub some meat in 
•water till it is well colored with blood. Add alcohol to this blood. 
Obs. The liquid is full of white particles, and the meat seems 
hard. Inf. The alcohol has coagulated the albumen of the meat 
and blood. 

Exp. 11. Add alcohol to some of the pepsin of the gastric 
juice. Obs. The pepsin contains white, stringy particles. Inf. 
Alcohol coagulates pepsin. 

Note. — To prepare the pepsin, get from the butcher the inside mem- 
brane of a pig's stomach ; cut into fine pieces, and soak it in glycerine for a 
few hours. The glycerine dissolves the pepsin; strain through a fine cloth. 
Prepared pepsin can be bought of the druggist. 

Application. — Pepsin is the active solvent of tlie gastric juice. 
Alcohol tends to harden the food and coagulate the pepsin, thus 
retarding digestion. Continued use tends to chronic indigestion 
and to the intensifying of any diseases of the digestive system. 



PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 185 

2. Alcohol absorbs the "Water of the Body. 

Exps. Refer to Exps. 8 and 9. 

Alcohol not only absorbs water from the albumen Miiich it 
coagulates, but the whole system floods it with water to dilute it 
and render it less harmful. Hence alcohol absorbs the water of 
the saliva, of the gastric juice, of the blood, of the tissues, and of 
all the secretions. This soon results in a craving for fluid to 
supply the body, really a " thirst " for water requiring time for its 
absorption throughout the system, but temporarily satisfied by 
more exciting. 

3. Alcohol destroys the Blood-Corpuscles. 

Exp. 12. Prick with a pin under the finger-nail and draw a 
drop of blood. Place this on a bit of glass, and examine with a 
magnifying glass. Observe the way in which the little blood-cor- 
puscles are arranged. Touch them with the smallest amount of 
alcohol. Obs. The corpuscles are of an irregular shape, and have 
lost part of their color. Add more alcohol. Obs. The corpuscles 
are in an irregular mass of a whitish color. Inf. Alcohol coagulates 
the albumen of the corpuscles, and dissolves the coloring matter. 
Kefer also to Exp. 5. 

Application. — Alcohol at once enters the blood, seizes the oxy- 
gen that the i-ed corpuscles are carrying to the various parts of the 
body, dissolves the coloring matter, and coagulates the albumen of 
these corpuscles. Hence the blood partially fails in its work of 
carrying new matter to the tissues and in eliminating the waste 
matter. The result is a clogging of the system with effete matter, 
poisoning of the blood, diseases of the skin, liver, and kidneys. 
The retarding of the combustion within the body lowers its tem- 
perature in direct proportion to the amount of alcohol taken. 

4. Alcohol ruins the Blood-Vessels. 

Observe the crust of earthy matter on the inside of bottles of 
grape wine. Inf. The earthy matter which was soluble in the 
grape juice is thrown down by the alcohol in the wine. 

Application. — The mineral matter which is being carried by the 
blood to the bones is precipitated by the alcohol and forms a crust 



186 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

in the blood-vessels and in all the tissues, making them weak and 
brittle. As a result blood-vessels burst under any unusual strain, 
and apoplexy results. 

5. Alcohol paralyzes Nerve Matter. (A narcotic.) 

Exp. 13. Etherize or chloroform a frog by soaking a wad of 
cotton and putting it in his mouth, or place a spoonful of ether in a 
jar of water and immerse the frog. When insensible, carefully 
cut open the skin and flesh of the leg till the nerve is exposed. 
Touch a drop of alcohol to the exposed nerve. Obs.- The nerve 
becomes stiff and white, the trembling of the limb ceases. Inf. 
Alcohol has i^aralyzed the live nerve matter. 

Application. — A small dose of alcohol causes incipient paralysis 
of the nerves of the tissues and brain ; this causes an extra activity 
for the purpose of diluting and expelling the poison from the sys- 
tem, manifested by the " animated appearance, the throbbing of 
the arteries, the flush of the face, and the sparkle of the eye." 
This paralysis also numbs any feelings of j)ain, apparent benefits 
arising from previous paralysis. The paralysis of the nerves con- 
trolling the muscular walls of the capillaries weakens their elasti- 
city ; at the same time the heart increases its action : hence the 
blood tends to remain near the surface, and an extra radiation of 
heat takes place — a second reason for the lower temperature of the 
body. 

Increase tlie dose, and the paralysis of the brain increases in this 
order: 1. Of the delicate nerve matter of the superior brain (cere- 
bellum), blunting the highest functions, reverence, modesty, love, 
etc. ; its reflex action is the loss of control of the connecting- 
nerves; thus moral power fails, and the lower nature is supreme. 
2. The part of tlie brain controlling voluntary motion is paralyzed ; 
at the same time the nerves of sensation are paralyzed, resulting 
in an insensibility to pain and injury; this goes on till a person is 
" dead drunk." 3. The last part of the nervous system affected is 
that which controls the involuntary actions, breathing, etc. ; this 
paralysis causes death. 

Continued use leads to a degeneracy of nerve matter and tissue 
by the constant paralysis and repair, because the structure of the 



PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 187 

nerve matter is changed ; hence " disorders occasioned by the strain 
imposed on the system, diseases traceable to the general degenera- 
tion of the system, and diseases which might otherwise be averted 
or resisted"; finally the insatiable demand for alcohol, diseases of 
the nerves, deliiium and death. 



188 METHODS OF TEACHING. 



OBSERVATION LESSONS. 

Besides the objective work required to be done in 
connection with the teaching of all the common 
branches, there should be given regularly in all pri- 
mary and grammar grades and in the ungraded school, 
observation lessons upon minerals, plants, and animals. 
It should be undei'stood that the aim of these lessons 
is not so much to teach many facts as it is to cidtivate 
the pupils' powers of observation, and to awaken an 
interest in, and a love for, the things of nature that lie 
directly about them. Let this part of the work there- 
fore be slowly and carefully done. Use no book in tlie 
recitation, give out no lessons to be learned, and tell 
nothing to the pupils which they can ascertain for them- 
selves by their own observation. Learning one fact by 
their own unaided powers is better than memorizing a 
hundred facts which have been given them. 

Do not let the fact that you have not much knowl- 
edge of science discourage you from making the effort 
to teach the subjects required to be taught in these 
elementary lessons. With three or four elementary 
books of science from which to learn some facts and 
methods of illustration, any teacher can after a little 
time conduct the exercises so as to secure good results. 
Again, let it be urged upon you not to use books in 
teaching these lessons, but have the pupils study objects 
only. Make a careful preparation of every lesson, even 
though the subject be familiar, and so far as possible 
provide each pupil with something to do or to see. 
Have a definite object in your mind in presenting a les- 



OBSERVATION LESSONS. 189 

son, avoiding the aimless and irrelevant conversation 
which is frequently carried on in a lesson of this kind. 
Avoid a uniform question and answer method, and do 
not encourage or allow the use of set and formal expres- 
sions. The "• Model Lessons " found in books and peri- 
odicals should serve as a hint onl}^ of wliat may be 
done. Xo two lessons should be conducted precisel}^ in 
the same way. The best object lessons are those in 
which there is the freest expression of what the pupils 
actually see. 

Do not extend the lessons beyond the point at which 
the pupils' interest flags, nor rob the lessons of their 
proper time. It will be well to have a definite time 
allotted to them. Two ten-minute lessons every day 
in the primary grades, or during the first three years, 
and two lessons a week, of thirty or forty minutes each, 
or one lesson a week, an hour in length in the higher 
grades will give time to do much valuable work. In 
order to give each subject a proper share of time, and 
give the teacher something definite to work by, the follow- 
ing arrangement of subjects and times is suggested: — 

First Year. — First Half. 



Plants, 8 weeks. >j Form, 4 weeks. 

Place, 8 weeks. )> A.]M. Color, 4 weeks. 

Human Body, 4 weeks. J Qualities, 8 weeks. 

Size and Weight, 4 weeks. 



Plants, 8 weeks. 
Animals, 4 weeks. 
Place, 8 weeks. 

Size and Weight, 4 weeks. 



First Year. 


— Second Half. 


1 A.M. 

) 


Form, 4 weeks. 
Color, 4 weeks. 
Human Bodij, 8 



P.M. 



1 

!> P.M. 

J 



190 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

Second Year. — First Half. 

Plants, 8 weeks. > Form, 8 weeks. 

Human Body, 4 weeks. j> A.INL Color, 4 weeks. J> P.M. 

Place, 8 weeks. J Qualities, 8 weeks. 

Second Year. — Second Half. 



Plants, 8 weeks. 


1 A.M. 


Fo?7», 4 weeks. 


Animals, 4 weeks. 


Color, 8 weeks. 


Place, 8 weeks. 


J 


TF/. a??^ Meas., 



, )> P.]\I. 

veeks. j 
Human Body, 4 weeks. >* 

Third Year. — First Half. 

Plants, 8 weeks. >> Form and Color, 8 weeks. > 

Place, 4 weeks. \ A.M. Human Body, 4 weeks. [> P.M. 

Home Geog., 8 weeks. J Animals, 8 weeks. J 

Third Year. — Second Half. 
Place and Home Geog., ? a a r Form and Color, 8 weeks. 

20 weeks. ^ ^ -^ . Human Body, 8 weeks. [> P.M. 

Animals, 4 weeks. 



Grammar Grades. 

Plants. — From April to November. 
Animals. — From November to Aprik 
Minerals. — From November to ApriL 
Astronomy. — From April to November. 
Physics. — From November to Api-il. 

For the Observation Lessons, ungraded schools should 
be divided into two sections, each section being taught 
separately, and upon subjects required for graded 
schools. The following arrangement of to23ics and 
times is sugfo"ested for 

Ungraded Schools. 

To the youno-er pupils give two short lessons daily. 
Plants or Animals. — Once a week. 



OBSERVATION LESSONS. 191 

Size and Weight, or Qualities. — Once a week. 
Color or Form. — Once a week. 
Place or Home Geography. — Once a week. 
Human Body. — Once a week. 

To the older pupils give one long lesson a week upon plants 
from April to November, and upon animals or minerals from 
November to April. 

COLOR. 

The apparatus for teaching color should consist of 
different-colored worsteds, papers, cards, pigments, etc. 
A color-chart will also be a valuable aid. 

Differences and resemblances of colors should be 
taught by having the children select colors ditfermg 
from and resemblincj a mven color. The name of the 
color should then be given, and the pupil be asked to 
select that color from among others, and to point to it 
in any part of the room. At the end of the first year 
the pupils should be able to distinguish and name all 
of the common colors, as indicated in the Course of 
Studies. Color and form may be taught together by 
using different-colored cards of various shapes. 

In the second year shades, tints, and hues of common 
colors should be taught as before, with their names : 
scarlet, pink, crimson, straw, indigo, purple, lavender, 
salmon, buff, etc. Matching colors, shades, and tints 
will be found to be a useful exercise. Envelopes con- 
taining various colored bits of paper may be given out, 
from which the pupils may select a color to match a 
given color held up before them. At the end of the 
second year pn[)ils should be able to distinguish and 
name all of the common colors, and their tints and 
shades. 



192 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

Color and form slioukl be taught together in the 
second year, considerable time being given to the mak- 
ing- of desio^ns in which forms and colors are combined. 

In the third year there should be some practice in 
mixing pigments of different colors. Oi'ange from red 
and yellow, green from yellow and blue, and purple 
from red and blue, should be produced before the pu- 
pils, either by mixing the pigments or by passing the 
sunlight through pieces of colored glass. Hues should 
also be produced by mixing pigments of unequal pro- 
portions, as, for example, a reddish hue of yellow from 
the mixture of a very little red with yellow. 

Prismatic colors in proper relations should be shown 
from a glass prism in a sunny window, or from a soap 
bubble. An imitation of the solar spectrum should be 
made by the children by arranging threads of worsted 
upon any surface, or by drawing them through perfor- 
ated cardboard. In the same way, scales of colors from 
the liohtest tint to the darkest shade should be made. 

Colored designs in connection with the study of form 
should be made, special care being taken to have the 
lessons properly graded. These lessons should be pre- 
ceded and accompanied by lessons to teach harmony of 
colors. If the teacher does not know the harmonic or 
complementary colors, he should consult good books 
upon the subject, and show the children what colors 
are harmonious and how the complementary colors may 
be found. 

Much information ma}" be given in connection with 
the color lessons as to the different plants and metals 
used for dyes, emblematic colors, colors of horses, 
etc. 



OBSERVATION LESSONS. 193 

Further and more explicit suggestions to teachers 
will be found in Miss Crocker's " Lessons on Color in 
Primary Schools." 

FORM. 

See Drawing, page 252. 

PLACE. 

The subject " Place," in the Course of Studies, is in- 
tended to include position, distance, and direction, all 
the lessons to be constantly illustrated In^ plan-drawing. 

Teach use of the terms of relative position by hav- 
ing the children place an object, as a small pasteboard 
scjuare, in different relations to a book or upon the 
desk. This should first be done in imitation of the 
teacher, and afterwards from dictation. Statements 
expressing the relative position of two objects may 
sometimes be made by the children. 

The following wall indicate some of the w^ork which 
children should do during the first year : — 

The (square) is 

on, under, over, below, above, behind, 
before, at the right of, at the left of, 
in front of, in the centre of, at the 
right side of, at the left side of, at 
the right-hand corner of, at the left- 
hand corner of, at the upper right-hand 
corner of, at the middle of the right 
side of, at the middle of the front 
edge of, etc., the desk. 

Little drawings of the top of the desk, with an object 
upon it in different positions, should be made by the 
children, the teacher first showing how upon tlie black- 
board. 



194 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

The relative position of different objects in the school- 
room should be described ; as, " The teacher's desk is 
in the front part of the room," " The clock is above the 
blackboard," '' John sits behind me," etc. As soon as 
the points of compass are learned, the statements in 
regard to position may be extended ; as, '' There are 
two windows on the north side of the room," '' Tlie 
stove is near the northwest corner of the room," etc. 

ReLative distances shoukl be taught at first, such as 
the relative lengtli and width of two books, of two 
tables, of the length and width of the room, etc. The 
inch, foot, yard, and rod should be shown by actual 
measurement, and mnch practice should be had upon 
estimating lengths by these standards. Lines upon the 
slate and board, of an inch, a foot, and a yard in length, 
should be made many times by the children, the work 
being tested and corrected by the aid of a measure. 
Various distances within sight of the children should 
be first estimated, and afterwards ascertained by meas- 
urement. This work may well be continued through- 
out the course. 

The points of compass (cardinal and semi-cardinal) 
should be taught early in the coui'se, and applied in all 
the Place lessons of the primary grade. It is well to 
place upon the floor of the room lines indicating North, 
South, East, and West. Teach, and have your pupils 
tell, the direction in which the rows of seats extend, 
the road, the fences, etc. ; also, the direction which an 
object is from any other object, using the terms North, 
Northeast, etc. 

Other suggestions of methods to teach Place are given 
under the head of Plan-Drawing.^ 

1 p. 143. 



OBSERVATION LESSONS. 195 



HUMAX BODY. 



It is not natural or well for yoiin^ cliildren to exam- 
ine very nunutely the structure and functions of the 
various parts of the body ; nor can they learn with 
profit many of the reasons of the laws of health. It is 
important, however, that they know by observation the 
external parts of the body, well enough at least to lead 
them to compare the parts with corresponding parts 
of the lower animals, and to know the proper use and 
care of the various parts. 

Considerable information will have to be given in 
these lessons, although the pupils shoukl be led to ascer- 
tain and infer as many fact« as possible from observa- 
tion. They should locate the parts as they are named 
by pointing at or touching their own bodies and tlie 
bodies of others. Sometimes parts of lower animals 
should be brought before the class for observation, as 
for example when the structure of muscles or the shape 
of bones are taught. Charts and pictures should also 
be near at hand for constant reference. 

Much use of simple illustrations and stories should 
be made in giving lessons upon hygiene to young chil- 
dren, especially upon the effects of the use of tobacco 
and alcohol. The various primary physiologies now 
published, will be found very suggestive to teachers 
in respect to both matter and method. As a rule, these 
lessons should be taught orally, no use being made of 
books by the pupils. 

The following topics, prepared by Dr. Larkin Dunton, 
of the Boston Normal School, will be found useful as 
showing what subjects should be taught in the pri- 



196 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

mary grades and the order in which they should be 
taught. 

First Year. 

I. Parts of the Bo(hj. 1. Head, neck, and body or trunk. — 2. Arms, 
right and left. — o. Legs, right and left. — -4. Limbs. — 5. Posi- 
tion of body compared with that of common animals. — 6. Arms, 
wings, and forelegs compared. 

IL Parts of the Head. 1. Crown, back and sides. — 2. Hair, 
combing and brushing. — 3. Face, complexion, and w^ashing the 
face. — 4. Ears, right and left. 

nr. Parts of the Face. \. Forehead, temples, cheeks, chin, and 
lips. — 2. Eyes, eyebrows, eyelashes, and eyelids. — o. Nose, nos- 
trils, and bridge of the nose. — 4, INIouth, teeth, and tongue ; cleans- 
ing the teeth. 

IV. Neck. 1. Throat and back of the neck. — 2. Protection 
and cleanliness. 

V. Parts of the Body. 1. Back, chest, and stomach. — 2. Shoul- 
ders, sides, and hips. 

VI. Arms. 1. jNIovements. — 2. Joints; shoulders, elbows, and 
■wrist. — o. Upper arm, forearm, and wrist. 

VII. Hand. 1. Back, palm, thumb, and fingers. — 2. Joints, 
fists, and knuckles. — 3. Forefinger, middle, ring, and little fingers, 
and thumb. — 4. Motions, strength, and use. — 5. Nails and their 
uses. — 6. Cleanliness ; paring and biting. 

VIII. Legs. 1. Motions, proper walking, and hip, knee, and 
ankle joints. — 2. Thigh, shin, calf, and foot. 

IX. Feet. 1. Sole, instep, heel, ball, and arch. — 2. Tight and 
short shoes, and cold and damp feet. — 3. Cleanliness of feet, and 
neat shoes and stockings. 

Second Year. 

X. Eye and Sight. 1. Color of the eyes. — 2. White of the 
eyes, iris, and pupil. — 3. Change in the pupil for light. — 4. Bony 
socket and eyeball. — 5. Eyelids, eyelashes, eyebrows, wdnking, and 
tears. — 6. Too little and too much light, and reading at twilight. 
— 7. Holding work too near, looking cross-eyed, and cleanliness. 



OBSERVATION LESSONS. 197 

XT. Ear and Hearing. 1. Sounds known by the ear; trans- 
mitted by the air and by solids. — 2. Direction, pitch, and quality 
of sounds. — 3. Shape of tlie ear, internal ear, and cleanliness of 
ear. — 4. Care of the ear : cold draughts, pulling, and shouting 
into. — 5. Listening attentively, and eavesdropping. 

Xn. Nose and Smell. 1. Odors : pungent, aromatic, spicy, etc. — 
2. Use of smell : determining good food, pure air, etc. — 3. Scent 
in animals compared with smell in man. — 4. Colds, draughts, ven- 
tilation, cleanliness, etc. 

XIII. Tongue and Taste. 1. Tongue and saliva. — 2. Kinds of 
flavors: bitter, sweet, astringent, etc. — 3. Chewing gum, tobacco, 
etc. — 4. Hot drinks and strong drinks. — 5. Thirst, and proper 
time to drink. 

XIV. Touch. 1. Use of fingers, and delicacy of touch. — 2. 
Rough, smooth, etc. ; cold, hot, etc.; shape, size, etc. — 3. Cleanli- 
ness, blisters, callouses, etc. 

Third Year. 

XV. Teeth. 1. Enamel, crown, and root. — 2. Cutting teeth, 
eye-teeth, and double teeth. — 3. Two sets, shedding, and number. 
— 4. Cleansing: how and how of ten. — 5. Effects of hot drinks, 
candy, pickles, biting hard substances, etc, 

XVI. Skeleton. 1. Skull, spine, ribs, etc. — 2. Structure of 
bones, hollow and light. — 3. Kinds of joints, why joints move 
easily, and danger from pulling. 

XVII. Muscles. 1. Appearance ; lean meat. — 2. Attachment 
to bones. — 3. Action of muscles. — 4. Exercise, proper kinds of 
play and work, and rest. 

XVIIT. Skin. 1. Elasticity, pores, and perspiration. — 2. Cold 
draughts and proper clothing. — 3. Cleanliness : bathing, dand- 
ruff, etc. 

XIX. Circulation. 1. Where the blood is, uses of the blood and 
heart, and the pulse. — 2. Arteries and veins. — 3. Tight bands, 
tight clothes, warmth and exercise, wounds. 

XX. Respiration. 1. Pure and impure blood, windpipe and 
lungs, how to breathe. — 2. Pure air, and how to get it. — 3. Odors 
and dust, clean bodies and clothes, and out-of-door exercise. 



198 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

XXI, Digestion. 1. Use of teeth and saliva, eating slowlj', 
drinking when eating. — 2. Proper kinds of food and drink ; tea, 
candy, pickles, etc. — 3. Regnlar and late meals, chewing gum, etc. 

PLANTS. 

It will be seen in the Course of Studies that some of 
the topics of Plant Lessons which are prescribed for 
grammar grades, are also prescribed for primary grades. 
The reason of this arrangement will be seen when it is 
understood that in the primary grades only the most 
general and obvious features of a plant are to be ob- 
served, and that while a simple classification is made 
by pupils of the lower grades, the attention there is 
mainly given to developing the observing powers. 

In the first year, little more than what some of the 
children already know should be taught, the chief ob- 
jects being to awaken an interest in the plants them- 
selves, and to encourage a spirit of investigation. Lead 
the children to recognize some simple differences and 
resemblances in common plants in respect to size, length 
of stalk or trunk, and size, color, and shape of the flower 
and leaf. For example, statements like the following 
might be drawn from the children, while a buttercup 
and an anemone are being examined: — 

They grow at different heights from the ground. 

The flower-leaves of the butter-cup are yellow, and those of the 

anemone are white. 
The flower-leaves of the buttercup are wider than those of the 

anemone. 
They are not fragrant. 

When any plant is examined and talked about, en- 
courage the cliildren to bring other plants similar in 



OBSEUVATION LESSONS. 199 

respect to shape of leaves, color of flower, etc. The 
teacher should sometimes assist the children in their 
observation, by drawing shapes and parts of the leaf 
and flower; and tlie children should be encouraged to 
draw the various shapes as they are observed. 

Many of the most common trees, shrubs, and wild 
flowers should be examined in the way described during 
the first year. 

In the second year, the principal parts of the plant 
and of the root, stem, bud, leaf, and flower should be 
observed, the pupils noting resemblances and differences 
as before. When the different parts are recognized, 
the names of the parts should be given by the teacher 
and written upon the blackboard ; and as the facts are 
learned, they should be put into sentences by the pu- 
pils. For example, the children may observe the facts 
(the teacher giving the names) and afterwards put 
them into sentences as follows: — 

The parts of a flower are the calj^x, corolla, stamens, and pistils. 
The parts of the calyx are called sepals. 
The parts of the corolla are called petals. 

' The following facts may be learned in the same way 
during the second year : — 

I. Sterns^ Stalks^ or Trunks. 

r round. 
1. Shapes : ■{ three-sided. 

L four-sided. 



2. Parts: 



bark, 
wood, 
pith, 
threads, 
c fibres. 



200 



METHODS OF TEACHING. 



3. Colors: 

4. Uses. 



r green. 
J red. 
I brown etc. 



II. Leaves. 



1. Shapes : 



2. Color: 



3. Parts: 



4. Veins: 



5. Shapes of margin 



6. Kinds of surfaces 



III. Buds. 

1. Kinds; 

2. Shaj)e : 

3. Color. 

4. Parts: 



oval. 

oblong. 

egg-shaped. 

heart-shaped. 

needle-shaped, etc. 



( green. 
( red. 
r stem. 

[ blade 



apex, 
margin, 
surface, 
net-veined, 
parallel- veined, 
forked-veined, 
r plain or even. 
{ wavy. 
I toothed, 
smooth, 
rough. 
■{ woolly, 
hairy, 
silky. 



{ leaf-bud. 
C flower-bud. 

round. 

cone-like. 

5 germ, 
(scales). 



OBSERVATION LESSONS. 201 

IV. Flowers. 
1. Shapes : — 

Rose-shaped, bell-shaped, trumpet-shaped, cross-shaped, 
wheel-shaped, funnel-shaped, etc. 

cah^x, sepals. 



2. Parts : -^ corolla- petals. 

j stamens. 
L pistils, 
r red. 
I blue. 

3. Colors : -{ white. 

I pink. 

L scarlet, etc. 

4. Shapes of petals 5. Xumber of petals and se- 

and sepals. pals. 

From the common trees, shrubs, and wild flowers, the 
children should observe the most obvious peculiarities 
of each, and try to find others having similar peculiar- 
ities. 

As the parts are observed, the children should put 
the facts they have learned into a simple description, 
like the following: — 

This flower has a light-colored stem and heart-shaped leaves. 
It has five green sepals and five light blue petals. 
The petals are all of the same shape. 
It is called a violet. 

Similar descriptions should be made of many of the 
common plants of the neigliborhood. Do not insist 
upon or encourage a set form of description, but let the 
pupils exercise freedom and originality in giving the 
statement of facts which they have observed. 

In the third year some of the interesting facts con- 



202 METHODS OF tf:aching. 

nected with the history of j^lant life should be observed. 
Put various kinds of seeds in water and in tlie earth, 
and watch their development from da}^ to day. Let 
the children notice that the seed contains the germ of 
the plant, and that the root grows downward, while the 
stalk grows upward. Let them see also that the leaf- 
buds have a hard covering like varnish, and that some 
of them have scales on the outside and a woolly lining 
on the inside. The development of the flower-buds, 
flowers, and fruits sliould also be observed. Most of 
these lessons would best be given in the spring of the 
year. 

During September and October of the third 3-ear the 
uses of each part of the plant may be observed, espe- 
cially of tlie common plants used for food. Li this way 
the classification of fruits, vegetables, and grains may 
be made and their various differences and resemblances 
noted. The growing and ripening grains will afford 
excellent means of observation. 

The study of plants in the Grammar grades should be 
more minute than in the Primary grades. Parts of the 
plant which were not before observed are now noticed 
and additional names are given. The following hints 
for elementary plant lessons, suggested by Mr. George 
H. Martin, will assist teachers in the selection of topics 
and in methods of teaching. 

The Roman numerals indicate the grade in which the 
lessons should be given — although teachers of Primary 
grades will find the simi)ler parts of the outline none 
too difBcult for their pupils. 



OBSERVATION LESSONS. 203 

OUTLIXE OF STUDY. 
IV. Lessons to teach the Parts of a Plant, 

1. To teach to name the parts. 

Root, Stem, Leaves, Hairs, Buds, Flowers, Fruit, Seed. 

2. Teach to describe the parts. 

liooT. Tlie root lives in the ground. 

Stem. The stem bears leaves. 
Leaves. The leaves grow on the stem. 

The leaves are thin. 

The leaves are flat. 

The leaves are grwen. 
Hairs. The hairs grow on the leaves and on the stem. 
Buds-. The buds grow on the stem. 

The buds are full of little leaves. 

Leaves grow" from buds. 
Flowers. The flowers grow on the stem. 

The flowers are bright colored. 

The flowers smell sweet. 
Fruit. The fruit grows on the stem. 

The fruit has seeds in it. 
Seeds. The seeds grow in the fruit. 

3. Teach to name and describe the parts of a leaf. 

Petiole, Blade, Stipules, Veins. 
Petiole. The petiole is narrow. 
Blade. The blade is broad. 
Stipules. The stipules are like little blades. 

The stipules are at lower end of the petiole. 
A^Eixs. The veins are in the blade. 

The veins are hard. 

4. Teach to name and describe the parts of a flower. 

Sepals, Petals, Stamens, Pistils. 
Sepals. The sepals are on the outside of the flower. 
The sepals are green. 

(All the sepals form the Cali/x.) 



204 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

Petals. The petals are next inside the calyx. 
The petals are bright colored. 
(All the petals form the Corolla.) 
Stamens. The stamens are next inside the corolla. 
The stamens have two parts. 

One part is like a thread. (Call this the Fila- 

7nent.) 
The other part is on the top of the filament. 

(Call this the Anther.) 
In the anther is a yellow powder. (Call this 
Pollen.) 
Pistils. The pistils are in the middle of the flower. 

The pistils are larger at the bottom and the top. 
(Call the large part at the bottom the Ovary. 
Call the large part at the top the Stigma. Call 
the part between the Style.) 
There are some little bodies in the ovary. (Call 
them Orules.) 

V. Lessons to teach History of Plant Life. 

1. Embryo. 

Illust. A bean soaked a few hours in water. 
There is a little stem in the seed. 
There are two little leaves in the seed. 
There are two thick parts to the seed. 

2. Growth. 

Illust. Bean-plants in different stages. 

A root grows down from the seed into the ground. 

A stem grows up from the seed. 

The two thick parts come above the ground. 

The two little leaves unfold and make larger leaves. 

3. Buds. 

Illust. Same as above. 

There is a bud between the two leaves. 

This bud opens, and a stem, and more leaves grow from it. 

The plant keeps growing from buds. 



OBSERVATION LESSONS. 205 

4. Flowers. 

Illust. Pear, apple, or cherry flower-buds. 
The flowers come from flower-buds. 

5. Fruit. 

Illust. Apple, pear, or cherry flowers as the petals are falling 
away. 
The ovary grows. 

The other parts of the flower fall aw^ay. 
The ovary makes the fruit. 

6. Seeds. 

The ovules in the ovary make the seed in the fruit. 

Home Study. — Cover the surface of ■vs'ater in a tumbler with 
cotton. On this place seeds of different plants, — bean, corn, flax, 
and others, — and put in the sunlight. Observe carefully daily, 
and report germination of each kind, and subsequent changes. 

VI. Lessons to teach Differences in Parts of Plants. 

JVote. — The order of the study of the parts is unimportant, and may he 
determined by the season. Stems may be studied earlier than leaves or 
flowers. 

1. Difference in Stem. 

Illust. A section of stem of elder one inch long, 
(a) In structure. The elder stem is soft inside. 
The elder stem is soft outside. 
The elder stem has a liard ring between. 
Call the soft part inside Pith. 
Call the hard ring Wood. 
Call the outside part Bark. 
Illust. A section of banana stem one-half inch long. 

The banana stem has hard threads scattered through a 

soft part. 
The thread looks like the wood in the elder. 
(h) In shape. 

(c) In color. ^ Teach these topics as above. 

(d) In surface. 



206 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

2. Differences in Roots. 

Illust. Beet, Grass, Dahlia, 
(a) In constitution. The beet root is fleshy. 

The grass root is fibrous, 
(ft) In shape. The dahlia root has several parts. 
The beet root has only one part. 

3. Differences in Leaves. 

Illust. A variety of leaves. 
(a) In shape. The geranium leaf is round. 

The grass leaf is long and narrow. 
The white birch leaf is pointed at the top. 
The plum leaf is round at the top. 
The horse-chestnut leaflet is broad at the top. 
The horse-chestnut leaflet is narrow at the base. 
The maple leaf is broad at the base. 
■ The madeira-vine leaf has an even edge. 
The chestnut leaf has an uneven edge. 

(h) In shape, 
(c) In surface, 
(r/) In color. 
(e) In size. 
(/) In venation. 

{g) In composition. )■ Teach these topics as above. 
(A) In phyllotaxy. 
{i) In vernation. 
(/) In completeness. 
(^•) In form, size, etc., 
>of petiole. > 

Note. — Have shape, venation, composition, phyllotaxy, and vernation 
of leaves shown by drawing on slate or board. 

4. Differences in Flowers. 

Illust. Such flowers as can be obtained for the purpose. 
(a) In arrangement of parts : 

The lilac flower has the sepals united. 
The lilac flower has the petals united. 
Tlie lupine flower has the stamens united. 



OBSERVATION LESSONS. 



207 



The apple flower has the pistils united. 

The violet flower has the stamens on the end of the stem. 

The apple flower has the stamens on the calyx. 

The lilac flower has the stamens on the corolla. 

The apple flower has the calyx attached to the ovary. 

(h) In color, 

(c) In odor. 

(''/) In size, 

(e) In number. 

(/) In arrangement on stem. 

(g) In order of opening. 

(h) In completeness. 

(/) In symmetry. 

(J) In regularity. 

(/l) In number of parts. 

(/) In shape of parts. 

(//«) In arrangement of parts in 
bud. 

iVofe. — Have size of flowers measured. Have symmetry, regularity, 
aud shape of parts shown by drawings. 

5. DiFFERENXES IN FrUITS. 

Illust. Such fruits as can be obtained. 



Teach these topics as above. 



(a) In condition when ripe 



Oranges are juicy. 
Apples are fleshy. 
Grapes are pulpy. 
Corn is dry. 



(^0 


In size. 


(c) 


In surface. 


(d) 


In color. 


ie) 


In flavor. 


if) 


In shape. 


0/) 


In openings. 


(/o 


In constitution 



Teach these topics as above. 



J 

6. Differences in Seeds. 

Teach differences in number, size, shape, color, siwface, 

arrangement, germination, number of cotyledons. 
Have shapes shown by drawings. 



208 



METHODS OF TEACHING. 



VII. Lessons to teach Differences in Habits of Plants. 

(a) 111 position : The elm grows erect. 

The squash lies on the ground. 

The grape climbs by stem tendrils. 

The ivy climbs by rootlets. 

The pea climbs by leaf tendrils. 

The bean twines. In what direction ? 

The hop twines. In what direction ? 
(5) In growing : The elm grows tall with one woody stem. 

The currant grows low wdth several woody 
stems. 

The peony growls low with soft stem. 



(c) In 
(J) In 
{e) In 
(/) 111 

iy) In 

(A) In 



fruiting. 

locality. 

storing food. 

branching. 

blooming. 

multiplying. 



^ Teach as above. 



VII. Lessons on the Uses of Plants, 

1. AVhat part of plant is useful? For what? 

Illust, — The potato plant. 

The underground stem of potato is used for food. 
Starch is obtained from it. 

2. In what ways useful ? 



(a) For food 



(h) For starch 



It is nutritious. 
It has not a strong flavor. 
It is easily cultivated. 
It yields abundantly. 
It contains much starch. 



Note. — Care is needed in these lessons to adapt the subject and the 
method to the capacity of pupils. The lesson outhued above is not suited 
to youngest pupils. 



OBSERVATION LESSONS. 209 



VIII. Lessons on Special Subjects. 

Forest Trees. 

J Rust. — The chestnut-tree, 
(a) Size. The chestnut is a tall tree vrith long, spreading 

branches. 
(&) Stem. It has one straight stem. 

(c) Bark. The bark is gray, hard, and close ; has long par- 
allel cracks. 
{d) Leaves. The leaves are very long. 

The length is times the breadth. 
They are long and pointed at the top. 
The edge has hollows separated by sharp points. 
The leaves are paler on the under side. 
They have a short leaf stem. 
(e) Fruit. The fruit is covered with a bristly burr and con- 
tains from one to three nuts. 
(/) "^^00 D. The wood is coarse-grained and has large pores. 

AXIMALS. 

Some of the lessons on animals may have to be given 
by means of pictures, although, so far as it is possible 
to do so, the animals themselves, either alive, stuffed, 
dried, preserved in alcohol, or mounted, should be 
brought before the pupils for observation. Generally, 
the preserved specimens will be found better for class 
use than the living animals. A collection of specimens 
should be in a cabinet close at hand, the pupils being 
encouraged to add to it a few specimens each year. 

The work involved in collecting and preparing speci- 
mens for observation may deter some teachers from 
carrying on these lessons; but if a beginning is made, 
and the co-operation of pupils is secured, there will be 
little danger of failure on this account. Some of the 



210 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

specimens may be found all ready for observation, as 
the crab, starlisli, coral, sponge, and a few of the insects. 
Stuffed birds may be bought for a small sum of a tax- 
idermist, and a few of the animals needed may be pro- 
cured at the provision store. A large number of the 
animals, however, will have to be caught, killed, and 
prepared for class use by the teachers and older pupils. 

Insects may be caught with a net made of a stick, 
hoop, and mosquito netting. For killing the insects, 
have a bottle of chloroform, ether, or benzine, with a 
camel's-hair brush attached inside to the cork ; or they 
may be killed by throwing them into a bottle containing 
cotton saturated with ether. When they are dead, they 
may be dried and mounted upon cards or slices of cork, 
with pins thrust through the thorax. For some pur- 
poses, it will be found best to })reserve the insects in 
alcohol. When this is done, let the insects be soaked 
in water for a time before using, to take out the alco- 
holic odor. Furtlier suggestions for mounting and pre- 
serving specimens will be found in any good text-book 
of zoology. 

If one specimen for each pupil cannot be provided, 
allow three or four pupils to look at one specimen ; or if 
there is only a single specimen for the entire class or 
school, have the specimen examined by the pupils in 
groups. 

In all grades, both teacher and pupil should use the 
pencil and chalk freely in drawing the shapes of tlie 
several parts, and in locating the parts, after they have 
been observed. 

The use of animals, and the importance of kindness 
toward them, should be impressed upon children of all 
ages in connection with these lessons. 



OBSERVATION LESSONS. 211 

Primary Grades. — The first lessons should be upon 
those animals which are most familiar, as the cat, dog, 
horse, cow, rabbit, hen, duck, pigeon, frog. These and 
a few others of which these are types, will be all that it 
will be well to observe during the first year. In these 
early lessons only tlie most obvious features of each 
animal should be considered, as, for example : the num- 
ber and shape of ears ; number and shape of legs ; 
number and shape of toes or claws; kind of covering ; 
uses of parts ; etc. It will be remembered that parts of 
the human bod}^ are studied in the primary school.^ 
Til is work will greatly assist in the observation of parts 
of the lower animals, and should go on at the same 
time. 

In the second and third years, observation and com- 
parison of common animals, including domestic animals 
and the common fowls, birds, and insects, should be 
continued. The observation and naming of parts should 
occur throughout the course, care being taken not to 
tell what the children can see for themselves, and not 
to proceed too rapidly. Such animals and specimens as 
can be most easily procured should be observed. What 
the children observe is of far less consequence than the 
fact that they do observe some animal every day in a 
proper way. It may be necessary to direct the atten- 
tion of children to certain animals which cannot con- 
veniently be brought into the schoolroom. Their 
observation of such animals will have to be made out 
of school hours, the facts observed to be subsequently 
stated in recitation. 

Only the most prominent parts of insects should be 

1 p. 195. 



212 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

observed at tliis time, such as the head, thorax, and 
abduDieii ; feelers, eyes, wmgs, and legs. Interesting 
facts and stories may be told or read to children in con- 
nection with the lessons upon insects. 

Resemblances and differences in the parts and habits 
of animals should also be taught during the second and 
third years. These lessons may be pursued in the fol- 
lowing order : (1) resemblances and differences in 
many parts of two animals; (2) resemblances and dif- 
ferences in a few parts of three animals ; (3) resem- 
blances and differences in single parts of several ani- 
mals. The resemblances and differences in the habits 
of animals may have respect to manner of locomotion, 
of getting food, and of eating and drinking. 

In comparing animals, resemblances are given first ; 
afterw^ard, differences. Let the children draw their own 
inferences. 

As an illustration of w^iat points are to be developed 
in these early lessons, the following examples are given. 
The questions and statements merely indicate the kind 
of observation which may be made. 

"1. To teach i-esemblances and differences in parts and habits of two 
animals. — Compare hen and duck, as to size, shape of head, length 
and shape of bill, comb, shape of body, shape of legs, size and 
shape of wings, thickness of feathers, tail feathers, condition of 
feet, habits in getting food, habits in walking, habits in eating and 
drinking. 

2. To teach reseniblances and differences in several jmrts of ani- 
mals. — Compare horse, cow, and sheep as to («) size; (6) cover- 
ing; (c) teeth; (r/) tail; (e) horns, etc. 

Write complete sentences. 

3. To teach resemhlances and differences in animals in respect to 
one part. — What animals have hair? What have wool? What 



OBSERVATION LESSONS. 213 

have feathers? What bh-ds have long bills? What bh-ds have 
short bills ? What have straight bills ? What wide ? What nar- 
row? 

In the same way teach differences of animals as to (a) mouth ; 
(5) feet ; (c) ears ; (d) wings. 

Grammar Grades. — The aim of the work clurinof 
the fourth and fifth years is mainl}^ to lead pupils to 
observe for themselves the parts of several animals. It 
will be well at this stage to have some system or order 
in the observation. The animal should first be exam- 
ined as a whole, and afterwards in parts, in regular 
order. Some facts respecting the size, form, surface 
color, position, and uses, should be observed and stated 
by the pupils, the teacher merely directing the observa- 
tions and correcting errors. 

The names of animals to be observed are given in the 
course for graded schools. The observation of each of 
these animals — or otliers of which these are types — 
shoukl be as minute as time and the ability of pupils 
will permit. Only a few points should be observed at 
each lesson, care being taken to allow time for every 
pupil to observe each point. Complete statements of 
facts observed should be made by the pupils, but they 
should be given freely and naturally. 

To show wdiat it is possible for pupils of the lower 
grammar grades to see, and also to show a good method ^ 
of directing their observation, the following lessons are 
given. They are by Miss J. M. Arms, of Boston. 

THE LOCUST, OR "GRASSHOPPER." 

The children may begin the study of insects with the locust, or 
"grasshopper," as it is commonly called, because it is a good type 

1 For method, see the forthcoming Ginde for Science Teachincj, No. 
Vin., by Alpheus Hyatt. 



214 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

of the whole class of insects, and is familiar to them. To insure 
the best success, each child should be provided with an alcoholic 
specimen, which may be pinned to a small strip of cork to aid in 
handling. The children observe the body first, afterv,'ards the 
parts fastened to the body. By questions the teacher leads the 
children to tell her that the body is long, and that a part of it is 
round. She asks, " Is it round like a ball, or round like a tube ? " 
[showing ball and tube], and they answer, "Round, like a tube." 
They tell her that the body is yellow, brown, and red. She asks, 
" Are the two sides alike or unlike?" They think the sides are 
alike, so that the locust has a right and left side, like their own 
bodies. 

Tliey say that the body is divided into three parts, — a head, a 
"tail," which the teacher calls the abdomen, and between these two 
parts, a middle and larger part, which (having taken the lesson on 
the lobster) they think is the thorax. 

Having observed and described the body, as a whole, they next 
observe the three parts more closely. The head, they say, is long 
in an " up and down " direction, and the teacher gives the word 
vertical, and writes it on the board. They say that it is narrow, 
that it has two "horns" which the teacher calls "feelers," and 
that it has two " things " which they think are eyes, one on each 
side. 

Before this they have noticed that the head moves quite freely 
up and down, or in a vertical direction, and sideways; also, that 
when the head moves, the forward part of the thorax moves. 

Observing now the thorax, they often describe the forward part 
as a cape. [We have noticed that little girls are very apt to call 
it "a cape," and little boys "a saddle."] - They think that the 
thorax looks somewhat " like a box," flat on the low^er side, with 
" queer marks " on it, and with lines on the sides. The teacher 
gives the word "seams" for these lines, so that the thorax is 
seamed. The children find that the legs and wings are fastened 
to this part of the body. 

The "tail" is longer than the head and thorax. The children 
see lines running round it. 

The teacher asks, "What have I in my hand ? " The children 
answer at once, " A ring." 



OBSERVATION LESSONS. 215 

" Is it a gold ring? " " Xo, it is a paper ring." 

" What is this?" asks the teacher. ".Three or four paper rings 
fastened together with tissue-paper." 

*' Do the rings move upon each other, or are they fastened 
so tightly together that they cannot move?" " They move upon 
each other." 

" Now look at the locust's ' tail,' and tell me something more 
about it." Most of the children are pretty sure to say that the 
" tail " is ringed, and that the rings move upon each other. Some 
count six rings, others seven, and two or three are sure there are 
eigiit. The number of rings is a matter cf little importance, 
as it is difficult to make out, and is, therefore, w'ork for older 
pupils. 

The children next see the line or crease running from the tho- 
rax to the end of the " tail." Above the crease on each side 
they see, if their eyes are very keen, a row of tiny slits. These, 
they are interested to know, are the breathing-holes of the locust. 
This offers an opportunity to the teacher to speak of the wonder- 
ful little tubes and sacs which the locust possesses, and which, 
when filled witli air, lighten the weight of the body, and help the 
insect to fly. At the end of the '' tail " they see the organ which is 
used for boring holes in the earth in which the eggs are deposited. 
For this reason the organ may be called an egg-depositor. 

Having carefully observed the bodj^, they are ready to examine 
the parts fastened to it. They say the feelers are long, like " big 
threads," and " made of little pieces." Below the feelers they find 
the upper lip, with the two hard, dark-brown " teeth " beneath, 
and back of these, four little organs they often call "whiskers," 
but which the teacher tells them are organs used, possibly, in ob- 
taining food. 

The children are too young to make out the three pair of mouth- 
parts satisfactorily. A blackboard drawing will show these parts, 
if the teacher wishes to resort to such a drawing, but I prefer to 
pass over the subject till the children are old enough to find the 
mouth-parts and make their own drawings. It often happens that 
some member of the class has seen a locust eat, and can tell the 
others how it bites and chews grass, and how the " teeth " move 
sideways instead of vertically, like their teeth. 



216 ]METHODS OF TEACHING. 

Looking at the parts fastened to the tliorax, every child can 
describe the three pair of legs. Every child sees that each leg is 
made of pieces which move upon each other, so that the leg is 
jointed. Every one finds that each leg has two little hooks at its 
end, the use of which each must try to find out when the summer 
comes again. Every one sees that the last pair of legs is longer 
and larger than the other two pair, and are prettily marked. Many 
are eager to tell their teacher that the locust jumps with these legs, 
and all agree that the insect is a good leaper. 

In the lesson on the lobster, the children have seen the feelers, 
mouth-parts, and walking-legs on a large scale, and can better 
understand the structure of these parts in insects. 

The children spread out the wings on one side. The first or 
upper pair they say are long, narrow, brown, with stiff "things'" in 
them, which the teacher calls "veins." They cannot see objects 
distinctly through them. These the teacher calls " wing-covers." 
The second or lower pair they say are broad, white, with stiff veins 
in the longest part, and "little veins" in the shortest part. They 
can see objects distinctly through them. They say these wings 
are folded like a fan, and lie straight with the body. The teacher 
calls them true wings. The children compare the true wings with 
the wing-covers. 

Observing the egg-depositor, they say there are four distinct 
parts that are hard and strong; two of these parts curve upward, 
and two downward. 

After the observations are finished, simple drawings and written 
descriptions are required. 

Outline of the Lesson on the Locust. 

1. Body. General description : long; tube-like; yellow, brown, 
red ; two sides alike. Divided into three parts : head, thorax, tail. 

Parts described: (1) Head: long vertically ; narrow; bears two 
feelers ; has two eyes ; set upon a neck ; moves vertically and side- 
ways. (2) Thorax: box-shaped; forward part like a cape : flat on 
lower side ; seamed ; bears legs and w ings. (3) " Tail "; long ; ringed ; 
has tw^o rows of breathing-holes ; bears organ for depositing eggs. 

2. Parts fastened to the Body. One pair feelers : long, thread- 
like. One pair " teeth " : brow^n, stout, notched, move sideways. 



OBSERVATION LESSONS. 217 

Two pair thread-like organs. Three pair legs : jointed, hooked, of 
unequal length and size ; last pair (leaping-legs), long, large, strong. 
Two pair wings (wing-covers and true wings). Wing-covers brown, 
stiff, not transparent, veins large. True wings white, transparent, 
folded like a fan, lie straight with body. Egg-depositor, — four 
distinct parts, — stout, curved, horny. 

THE DRAGOX-FLY. 

When the locust is familiar, the dragon-fly is observed in the 
same order, and afterward compared with the locust. 

We will omit the observations on the dragon-fly, and pass to the 
comparative work. 

The children tell their teacher that the dragon-fly is like the 
locust because it has a long, tube-like body ; because the two sides 
of the body are alike ; because the bod}^ is divided into three parts, 
which they are now ready to call the head, thorax, and "tail." 
They say that the head has two eyes, like that of the locust; that 
the thorax, or middle part, bears the legs and wings ; that the 
" tail " is long and ringed. 

They also see that the dragon-fly resembles the locust in having 
one pair of feelers, an upper lip, and one pair of dark " teeth." 
They are not sure of the little organs back of the " teeth," but 
they are sure that the dragon-fly has three pair of legs and two 
pair of wings, like the locust. They also see an egg-depositor at 
the end of the tail. 

When the children look for differences, they are quick to say 
that the bodj'' of the dragon-fly is longer than that of the locust, 
and that the three parts look, as a little child once told me, " as if 
they were not put together very tight," which is another way of 
saying that the parts of the dragon-fly are not as closely consoli- 
dated as those of the locust. They say that the head is shorter 
vertically, and broader; the eyes a great deal larger; the head 
" ever so much looser," or, as the teacher says, much more loosely 
attached; the thorax more hunch-backed; the "tail" more 
slender. 

They also say that the feelers are shorter; the legs smaller, 
and more nearly equal in size ; the wings longer, more finely 
veined, and more useful as flying-organs. They have come 



218 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

to this last conclusion by their own efforts, unaided by the 
teacher. 

After these comparisons have been made, the children draw the 
inferences that the dragon-fly bites its food, and that it is a good 
flyer, and not a leaper. 

In this way the interesting habits of insects, and their wonderful 
powers of adaptation, are brought out clearly. 

The following statements of facts, prepared from 
observation of specimens by pupils of a normal school, 
will be helpful to some teachers. Pupils of grammar- 
school age may not be able to observe all the points 
that are indicated in the notes ; but with a good mag- 
nify ing-glass most of the facts may be ascertained and 
expressed by the pupils. 

With a good elementary text-book as a guide, similar 
notes upon other animals may be made. It is advisable 
for teachers to examine a specimen, and to note the 
various points to be observed, before the lesson begins. 

THE COMMON ANT. 

Color. — Brownish red. 

Size. — About one-fourth of an inch long. 

Parts. — Three divisions: head, thorax, and abdomen. 

The head is about one-fourth the size of the whole animal, and 
is slightly triangular in shape, looking at it in front. There are two 
eyes, one on each side of the head. Projecting from the front of 
the head, near the eyes, are two antenna^, which are twice jointed, 
the second joint being notched. The mouth is provided with 
strong jaws, called mandibles, for tearing the food, and under- 
neath are the inner jaws. 

The thorax connects the head and abdomen, and is smaller in 
diameter than either of the other parts. It is covered on the top 
by a shield-shaped portion. The juncture of the thorax and ab- 
domen is very slender, and consists of one knob, or ring. 



OBSERVATION LESSONS. 219 

The ant has three pairs of legs, all placed upon the thorax. The 
legs are five-jointed, the first joint being the smallest ; and from 
the third is a projection called the spur. The spur on the two 
front legs is larger than on the others. The last joint is notched, 
or toothed, a great many times. 

The abdomen is marked by rings, which separate it into six 
segments. These segments dift'er in size, the last one being the 
smallest; and the eifect is to make the abdomen taper to a point. 
These segments allow of the abdomen's being bent very easily. 
The sides of the abdomen are covered with little hairs. 

THE DOR-BUG. 

Size. — About seven-eighths of an inch long and one-hal£ of an 
inch wide. 

Fonn. — Oblong in shape, slightly rounded at both ends. 

Color. — Dark brown on the upper side ; yellowish brown on the 
under side. 

Parts. — Three parts : head, thorax, and abdomen. 

The head is the smallest of the three parts. All the divisions 
of the body are jointed. It has two compound eyes, one on 
each side of the front part of the head. Between the eyes 
are the antenncE, which are about one-fourth of an inch long, 
and have little oblong knots at the end. They are used as 
feelers. On the forward portion of the head are the mouth- 
parts. These are so small that only the jaws can be seen, and 
those with the greatest difficulty. The jaws come from the sides 
of the mouth. 

To the under side of the thorax are attached three pairs of legs. 
The legs of the first pair have three parts. The division nearest 
the body is smooth, and larger than the other tw^o. The middle 
division is shorter, and notched. The last division is jointed, 
notched, and at the end has two little claws. The notches and 
claws enable it to fasten itself to objects. The second and third 
pairs of legs have the same structure as the first pair. On the 
upper side of the thorax are two pairs of wings. The outer pair 
are brown, oblong, pointed at the back, glossy, and firm of texture. 
This pair is attached to the second segment of thorax. Under 



220 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

this is a pair of gauzy wings. The second pair are larger, are 
shaped like half a lilac leaf, and have several strong veins run- 
ning through the thin tissue. One strong vein extends along the 
straight edge, and enables the wing to cut more easily through the 
air. This pair is attached to the third segment of thorax. When 
at rest, they are folded under the thicker wings, which protect them. 
The back of each wing folds under the front part, and both cross 
under the shield-wings. 

The abdomen is oval in shape. It has divisions, or segments. 
The largest segment is near the thorax. From this they diminish 
in size to the end of the body. 

BLACK SPIDER. 

Black, with some brown markings upon it. Width, not includ- 
ing legs, about one-fourth of length. of an inch long. 

Body consists of two principal parts of about the same size, 
connected by a small, narrow part. On the forward part of one of 
the large divisions is the head, which is simpl}'^ a continuation of 
the division. On the top of the head are a pair of eyes about 
one-eighth of an inch apart : below these, on the front part of head, 
are another larger pair of eyes nearer together ; and below these, 
on the lower part, are four more eyes, arranged in a horizontal line. 
From the lower part of the head projects downward a pair of jaws 
which are long and strong. On the end of each jaw is a little 
hook pointing inwards. In the end of each hook is a tiny hole. 
Passing a pin between the jaws, teeth are discovered on the sides 
of the jaw nearest together. These teeth extend about half-way 
up the sides of the jaws. Under the jaws is the mouth, which has 
a lower lip, but no upper lip. Attached to the back of the upper 
end of each jaw is a jointed part, or feeler, consisting of four joints. 
On the under side of the forward division (cephalo thorax) are 
four pair of legs. They are seven-jointed. The first pair are 
larger than any of the others, the second pair next in size, the 
third pair are the smallest. The legs are covered with little black 
hairs, especially numerous on the lower joints. 

The second large division (abdomen) is almost spheroidal in 
form, and on the upper side 'is covered with hairs. On the under 



OBSERVATION LESSONS. 221 

side of the abdoinen, on the end nearest the thorax, is an opening 
on each side of ^Yhich is a semicircular slit. Below these i:)arts 
on or near the end are projections arranged in the form of a circle. 

CLAM. 

1. Shell. 

(1) I'hree to five inches long, two inches wide. Ovate and 
convex in shape. Edge entire. Thinnest part near the edge. 
Broader end called anterior end ; narrower end called posterior 
end. If posterior end is nearest you and hinge is up. the part of 
shell to the right will be the right valve ; the part of shell to the 
left will be the left valve. (2) On the inside of shell there is a 
narrow band of dull white near edge; broader band of glossy- 
white inside of this, from which a portion projects toward centre 
at posterior end. In centre a dull white portion, at anterior end, 
is a glossy white elliptical spot. At posterior end is a glossy 
white circular spot. (3) The outside of shell is dull white in 
color. There are concentric rings which grow farther apart as 
they near the edge. Rather rough surface. (4) In the hinge 
there is a projection from left valve; depression on right valve. 

2. Live animal. 

(1) Mantle. Covers the outside of valves except where worn 
in exposed parts. Internal parts covered by mantle, which serves 
also as lining for valves. The part of mantle exposed when valves 
are opened is thickened and of a darker color. (2) Muscles. 
Lying near inner end of shell is a thick muscle which protects 
the interior from injury. A dark brown elastic substance placed 
where the two valves fit into each other serves to keep the valves 
apart. The anterior adductor is attached to the glossy spot in 
the anterior portion of the valves ; composed of many thread-like 
bands of muscle which serve to close the valves. The posterior 
adductor is attached to a circular portion in posterior end. 
(3) Siphon. Projection from posterior end; tubular in shape; can 
be extended during life eight or ten inches ; dark colored, covered 
by mantle; tough texture; two openings leading into tubes; little 
fringe around openings. (4) Gills. Extending from between 
two anterior openings of siphon to l)eyond hinge of valves ; fan- 
like in shape ; marked with parallel ridges extending from base to 



222 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

edge; both gills same form and size; edge entire. Two similar 
gills below the body. (5) Body. Same size as gills ; light color 
with dark streaks ; thickened and rounded in form ; projection at 
anterior end (foot) ; attached to line of division. (6) llibbons. 
Anterior end of body; length the width of gills; thin and narrow; 
all alike; two above and two below the body. (7) Month. Dark 
colored spot situated where four ribbons unite ; entrance into 
body. (8) Foot. At lower anterior end of body; thickened 
tough projection ; expands on absorbing water ; protrudes froin 
slit in muscle. (9) Slit. Situated in lower anterior portion of 
muscle which lies around edge of shell. 

CORAL. 

Materials. — Pieces of the skeleton of one kind of coral, enough 
for each jiupil to have one piece. A whole mass of the saine kind 
of coral, if it can be obtained. The Galaxea coral is a particularly 
good one for study because the parts are large. 

Observation of Skeleton of Galaxea. — It is white, com- 
posed of little cylindrical tubes imbedded in a white porous sub- 
stance. When scratched with a knife-blade, the tubes and porous 
substance are equally marked. When a bit of each is placed in a 
separate glass with a little muriatic acid, the acid froths, and the 
bit of coral is dissolved. [AVe infer from the equal hardness and 
the like behavior with muriatic acid that both parts of the skele- 
ton of coral are of the same material. Both are carbonate of lime, 
the same substance as marble.] 

The tubes rise from above the coral about one-fourth or one- 
third of an inch. At the top the tubes are about one-eighth of an 
inch in diameter, the edge is uneven, and the sides of tubes are 
marked with longitudinal lines. Inside the tubes are six large 
partitions, extending longitudinally from the circumference to the 
centre. Six shorter and thinner ones, alternating with these and 
extending not quite to the centre, and in some of the tubes twelve 
very short partitions alternating with the twelve longer ones. 

The tubes show the same partitions where broken off at the 
bottom of piece of coral as at the top of tubes. At the bottom the 
tubes are smaller than at the top, and they tend toward each other. 
Occasionally in the bottom of piece the tubes are united. 



OBSERVATION LESSONS. 223 

Prom the rough and broken appearance of pieces we judge that 
they are parts broken from a large mass. 

AXGLE-AYOEM. 

Materials. — A live angle-worm for each pupil placed in a white 
plate which has been rinsed in cold water and left wet. One live 
angle-worm placed on a dish of moist earth. For more minute 
examination, worms killed and hardened by lying in alcohol, one 
for each pupil. A pot of moist earth with a small plant of grass 
or clover growing in it, and several live angle-worms for children 
to observe habits. 

Observation of Live Angle-Worm on Plate. — The angle- 
worm has no distinct head or limbs, is cylindrical in shape, inches 

long, inch through, light reddish brown on the upper side, 

paler on the lower side, often iridescent, and marked by lines 
encircling it, which divide it into many rings or segments. 

Toward one end of the body is a thicker portion in which the 
rings are less distinctly marked. [This thicker part is called the 
saddle.'] The end of angle-worm which is nearer the saddle is 
forward as the worm moves, and on the under side of the first 
segment is a hole. [The mouth. This forward end of angle-worm 
is called the anterior end, and the part of worm back of saddle the 
posterior end.] 

On the upper side a dark line extends through the middle, and 
when the worm shortens itself, this line is crinkled. [This dark 
line is the food-tube, or intestine, seen through the skin of worm, 
and made dark by the earth which the worm swallows. The 
mouth opens into the food-tube, and there is a small opening from 
the food-tube in the last segment of the body.] 

Lying above the food-tube is a slender red line, which also is 
crinkled when the worm shortens itself. \_This tube holds red blood, 
and is called the heart.] 

The worm stretches out both ends of the body, and, on the plate, 
does not succeed in moving onward much in either direction. 

Observation of Angle-Worm on Moist Earth. — The 
■worm makes anterior part of body more pointed, stretches it out, 
fastens it in earth, and draws posterior part of body up to position 



224 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

of anterior part. Then repeats the movements in the same order, 
and so moves along. 

Examination of Worm hardened in Alcohol. — The 
worm is a light slate color, is shorter and more stiff and tough 
than the live worms, with the segments mnch nearer together. 
The three parts of worm, anterior part, saddle, and posterior part, 
can be seen more plainly. 

On each side of worm are two parallel lines of little dots. 
When the angle-worm is held between the thumb and finger of one 
hand, and drawn through the fingers of the other hand, these little 
dots are felt as points projecting from the sides of angle-worm. 
These points are the ends of tiny bristles which the angle-worm 
uses as hooks to fasten the forward part of his body until he has 
brought the back part of body up to the position of the forward 
part. 

Observation of Angle-Worms living in Pot of Earth. 
— As angle-worms work only in the dark, all that can be seen of 
their habits is the castings left on the surface of the earth, and 
possibly some change which the worms have made in the position 
of pebbles and sticks on the surface. If children can be induced 
to keep angle-worms at home, and to watch them just at dusk, they 
may succeed in seeing them come from their burrows, and, when 
disturbed, return to them, closing the burrow with a pebble or 
chip. They can also prove that angle-worms perceive light, by 
suddenly bringing a light near when they are out of burrows. 

In tlie latter part of the fourth year, something of the 
growth and change of insects should be taught. The 
best illustration of this change is perhaps the butterfly. 
To secure the best results, several lessons should be 
given at different times upon the various changes which 
are observed. Show a leaf or twig containing the 
eggs of the insect, and encourage pupils to bring other 
specimens of the same kind. The same may be done 
with the young, just after the}^ have emerged from 
the egg. The full-grown caterpillar and the cocoon 



OBSERVATION LESSONS. 225 

can be easily found, and will be interesting objects of 
study. By putting the cocoon into a box witli holes 
in it, the growth of the butterfly may be seen ; or, 
better still, b}^ putting the caterpillar into a glass 
box, with some of the leaves of the tree upon which it 
was found. The various stages of development may be 
observed until the butterfly is formed. The same may 
be done with other insects, as the frog, fly, mosquito, 
June-bug, potato-bug. Some practical lessons may 1)6 
taught in connection with the food of the maggot, grub, 
and caterpillar, and the time and place in which injuri- 
ous insects deposit their eggs. 

During the seventh year, the pupils learn by observa- 
tion to group animals according to resemblances of 
parts and habits. The animals which have been pre- 
viously examined, and others, both familiar and unfamil- 
iar, are to be classified first by pointing out the essential^ 
characteristics of fishes, frogs an^ toads, reptiles, birds, 
and mammals. So far as possible this classification 
should be made by the pupils' own observation. 

The varieties of birds and mammals may then be dis- 
tinguished, the class giving as much time to the exam- 
ination of specimens as time will permit. The most 
valuable part of this year's work, as indeed of the work 
of all grades, is the observation of adaptation of struc- 
ture to use. Lead the pupils constantly to infer the 
special use of each part as it is observed, and knowing 
the habits of certain animals, to infer and prove the 
necessary structure of the various organs and parts. 



226 METHODS OF TEACHIXG. 



MINERALS. 



The prescribed course provides for minerals to be 
taiiglit only during a part of two years, — the sixth and 
eiglith years of tlie course. Not much can be done in 
this time, but enough, it is hoped, to enable the pupils 
to know some common minerals by name and to know 
how to distinguish them. 

It is thought best in these elementary lessons to con- 
fine the study to the solids or rock forms and to direct 
attention especially to those rocks which are most com- 
mon. The first two or three lessons may be given to 
teaching what a mineral is. By comparing the mineral 
form with the vegetable and animal forms, it will be 
seen that one is organized and that the other is unor- 
ganized, and that a fragment of the mineral, unlike that 
of the animal or vegetable, has the same properties and 
composition as the whole. 

The next step is to 1:each the difference in minerals 
in respect to, — 

1. Natural form. 4. Lustre. 

2. Structure. 5. Transparency. 

3. Hardness. 6. Color. 

Other distinctions, as streak, refraction, polarization, 
phosphorescence, and those qualities which are tested by 
heat and chemicals are important, but may be deferred 
to the high-school course. 

To teach difference in natural form, compare, with 
reference to form of crystals. Rock salt, quartz, sul- 
phur, alum, ice (snow) may be good specimens in 
which the form of crystals may be easily observed. If 
it can be done, the formation of crystals in the fusing 



OBSERVATION LESSONS. 227 

and cooling of sulphur would be interesting and in- 
structive. A few simple technical names of crystal 
f(nMns may be learned ; as, cubic, liexagonal, fyramidal, 
etc. 

To teach structure, puncture the mineral with a knife 
or some pointed instrument to see if it has cleavage or 
can be readily split up into thin layers like mica, talc, 
gvpsum, and slate, or into fibres like asbestos, or into 
little cubes like galenite. 

No definite degree of hardness can be taught in these 
elementary lessons. Test with the point of a knife or 
of any hard metallic substance, the hardness of the 
mineral and give the names hard, medium hard, soft. 
Talc, gypsum, and zinc would be called soft ; quartz, 
feldspar, and topaz would be called hard. Other 
minerals could be compared with these. 

To teach lustre, take three minerals, as galenite, 
feldspar, and jasper, and show, or rather have the pu- 
pils see and say for themselves, that galenite is bright, 
or has lustre ; that feldspar is less bright, or has less 
lustre ; and that jasper is not bright, or has no lustre. 
To give technical names to the different kinds of lustre, 
compare the lustre of various minerals with lead, ghiss, 
and pearl. If the mineral is like lead in lustre, it has a 
metallic lustre ; if like glass, it has a vitreous lustre ; 
and if like pearl, it has a pearl}^ lustre. 

To teach difference in minerals in respect to trans- 
parency, the mineral may be placed before the eye, and 
if objects can be seen through it, it is said to be trans- 
parent. If only light can be seen through the mineral, 
or objects very dimly, it is said to be translucent. If 
neither objects nor light can be seen through the min- 
eral, it is said to be opaque. 



228 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

While these differences are being observed, the pupils 
are learning incidentally the names of the common min- 
erals. But it is not enough for them to know the 
names of a few minerals. If it can be done in these 
early lessons, it is desirable that they should learn to 
distinguish minerals when they see them, or at least to 
be able to distinguish a few. 

For example, to teach to distinguish quartz, we should 
if possible place before each pupil a specimen of quartz, 
with such other appliances as Avill lead him to examine 
it with reference to the qualities already spoken of. 
He will -see, and by being given the terms can say, that 
the quartz has crystals in the form of a hexagonal 
prism or shaft, terminated by a hexagonal pyramid; 
that it has no cleavage ; that it cannot be scratched with 
a knife, and that it scratches glass easily ; that it has a 
vitreous lustre ; that it is transparent, translucent, and 
opaque; that it is commonly colorless and white. 

Although the chief object is to lead the pupils to 
observe, it would be well to give with the teaching 
such information as will be of interest or value. For 
example, when the color of the quartz is observed, it 
would be well to tell the pupils that when quartz crys- 
tals are purple, they are called amethyst^ and that 
quartz occurs also in uncrystallized or massive forms, 
in which case, when colored and translucent, it is called 
carnplian and agate; and when opaque, jasper^ opal., 
£indjllnt. An inspection of specimens of these minerals 
will greatl}^ add to the interest of the pupils. 

Knowing so much of quartz, it will not be a difficult 
matter for the pupils to distinguish that mineral from 
others, and it would be well to have some time given 



OBSERVATION LESSONS. 229 

to the work of examining various minerals for this pur- 
pose. 

Of course such work is necessarily slow. Two or 
three lessons may be profitably given to quartz. An 
equal number of lessons may be given to each mineral 
named in the following outline of lessons prepared by 
Mr. Chas. P. Worcester. 

1. Galena (Lead Ore). — (1) Form: cubic. (2) Cleavage: 

good, cubical ; i.e.., it divides and subdivides readily into 
cubes. (3) Hardness : can be scratched readily with a 
knife. (4) Lustre: metallic. (5) Opaque. (6) Color: blue 
gray. 

2. Pyrite (Iron Pyrites). — (1) Form: usually cubic. (2) No 

cleavage. (3) Cannot be scratched v\"ith knife. (4) Metallic 
lustre. (5) Opaque. (0) Color : brassy yellow, or yellowish 
Avhite. 

3. Halite (Rock Salt). — (1) The crystalline form of salt that 

is mined is cubic. The coarse crystals sold as rock salt are 
from salt water by evaporation, and are of the square hopper- 
shape. (2) No cleavage. (3) Can be scratched with the 
nail. (4) A^itreous lustre. (5) Transparent or translucent. 
(6) Colorless : white or stained brown or red. (7) Taste : 
salt. 

4. Fluorite (Fluor Spar). — (1) Form: cubic, or modified cubic ; 

i.e., cubic with the edges bevelled or the corners cut off. (2) 
Some cleavage, clipping the corners of the crystal. (3) Can 
be scratched with the knife. (4) Vitreous lustre. (5) Trans- 
parent or translucent. (6) Color : white, bluish, or of vari- 
ous colors. 

5. Corundum (commonest form is emery. Sapphire and ruby are 

rarer forms of this mineral). — (1) Form : sometimes rhom- 
bic; i.e., as if originally a cube which had been flattened out 
by a diagonal pressure exerted on one edge, but more often 
massive ; i.e., without crystalline form. (2) No cleavage. 
(3) Very hard ; quartz can be readily scratched by it. (4) 
. Vitreous lustre. (5) Opaque. (6) L^sually black. 



230 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

6. Magxetite (Magnetic Iron Ore). — (1) Form : octohedron 

usually ; i.e., the crystal formed as if by the union of two 
four-sided pyramids, base to base. (2) jSI'o cleavage. (8) 
Can with difficulty he scratched with knife. (4) JNIetallic 
lustre. (5) Opaque. (6) Color: black. (7) In a powder 
it is strongly attracted by a magnet. 

7. Asbestos. — (1) Form : silky, flexible threads. (2) Cleavage : 

fibrous. (3) Lustre : silky. (4) Opaque. (5) Grayish 
white. 

8. Hornblende. — (1) Form : usually rhombic or six-sided 

prisms. (2) No cleavage. (3) Slightly softer than quartz. 
(4) Vitreous lustre. (5) Opaque. (6) Color: black or 
greenish black. (7) Often a constituent of granite, syenite, 
and gneiss rocks. 

9. Garnet. — (l)Form: usually well-defined dodecahedrons ; i.e., 

twelve-sided crystals. (2) Cleavage : not good. (3) Hard- 
ness : about like quartz. (4) Lustre : vitreous or dull vit- 
reous. (5) Transparent, translucent, or opaque. (6) Color : 
red or brown. 

10. Mica (commonest variety, Muscovite). — (1) Form: not 

readily made out. (2) Cleavage : perfect, into flexible 
leaves of indefinite thinness. (3) Can be scratched with 
the nail. (4) Transparent. (5) Vitreous lustre. (6) 
Color: gray and yellow. 

11. Feldspar (commonest variety, Orthoclase).— (1) Form like 

that o£ a book that is flattened out by a diagonal pressure 
applied on one edge. (2) Cleavage good ; usually in two 
directions parallel with the crystal faces. (3) Usually some- 
what softer than quartz, but with difficulty to be scratched 
with a knife. (4) Lustre : vitreous or pearly. (5) Opaque, 
or rarely translucent. (6) Color: usually wdiite, may be 
stained brown or red. 
The main constituent of granite, syenite, gneiss, and the most 
important of the common rocks. 

12. Tourmaline. — (1) Form: hexagonal prisms, usually of a 

roughly triangular cross-section. (2) No cleavage. (3) Hard 
as quartz. (4) Vitreous lustre. (5) Opaque. (6) Color: 
brown black. 



OBSERVATION LESSONS. 231 

13. Talc. — (1) Form: not easily made out ; often massive. (2) 

Cleavage : when crystalline, good in one direction. (3) Very 
soft ; feeling very characteristic, soft and soapy. (4) Pearly 
lustre. (5) Opaque. (6) Color: gray. 

14. Serpentine. — (1) Form: massive. (2) Xo cleavage. (3) 

Can be scratched with the knife, but not with the nail. 
(4) Lustre : dull, waxy. (5) Opaque or translucent. (6) 
Color : dark green. 

15. Gypsum. Varieties : fibrous (satin spar) ; massive (alabas- 

ter) ; burned (plaster of Paris). — (1) Form: sometimes in 
single rhombic crystals, but more often in flat crystals, in 
general shape like an arrow-head. Such are called twinned 
crystals, and are really modified single crystals of the regular 
form. Imagine a regular rhombic crystal to be cut in tw'O 
by a diagonal plane, and then one-half the crystal rotated on 
the other, half-way round, and you have tlie twinned crj^stal. 

(2) Cleavage : perfect. (3) Can be scratched with the nail. 
(4) Lustre : vitreous, pearly, or dull. (5) Transparent, 
translucent, or opaque. (6) Color: white or brown. 

16. Calcite. Varieties: transparent crystals (Iceland spar); 

massive (marble, limestone) ; burned (lime). — (1) Form : 
usually hexagonal pyramids or rhombohedrons, with only 
half as many faces as hexagonal pyramids. (2) Cleavage : 
perfect, parallel to the faces of the rhombohedral crystal. 

(3) Can be readily scratched with the knife, but not with 
the nail. (4) Lustre : vitreous. (5) Transparent, trans- 
lucent, or opaque. (6) Color: white, or variously stained. 



ASTPvOXOMY. 

In the twenty lessons assigned for this subject 
comparatively little can be clone. Not all of the work, 
either, can be purely observational, some of the facts 
being known only by inference, or upon the authority 
of others. The first few lessons may include subjects 
which have already been partially taught in connection 



232 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

with geography. These facts shouhl be reviewed, and 
other facts learned with as mucli minuteness as the 
ability of the pupils and time will permit. The fol- 
lowing outline of topics and questions will indicate in 
a general way the subjects of study, and the order and 
methods of presenting them. The Roman numerals 
indicate the order of lessons. Some of the observations 
Avill have to be made in the evening, and results be 
brought into the class. 

I.-Y. 

1. Form of Earth. 

Proofs. — («) Vessel coming in sight. (&) Shadow of earth in 
eclipse, (c) Horizon, a circle, (f/) Voyage around the world. 

2. Size of Earth. 

Diameter. Circumference. (Illustrate by time of railroad 
train.) 

3. Motions of Earth. 

(a) Rotation. — Evidences. Effects. (Illustrate by ball in sun- 
light. Lighted hemisphere changing — why ? Observe effects 
with axis of ball in various positions : 1st, horizontal, and 
toward the sun ; 2d, upright ; 3d, oblique. Illustrate sun- 
rise, noon, sunset, midnight, in the same way. Practise with 
globe, and find relative times for different places.) 

(&) Revolution. — Illustrate with ball and lamp and paper disc. 
Axis inclined 23^° toward the north. Why does the sun rise 
and set at different times ? Why is the sun higher at noon 
in the summer? Which pole is in sunshine in June? In 
December ? When is sun directly over equator ? Effect in 
length of day in different parts of the earth. Length of day 
at the equator. At the north pole. Change of seasons caused 
by what? Show by illustration that three conditions must 
exist. Place tropics — why 23^° north and south of equator? 
Polar circles — why 23.}° from poles? Orbit of earth. Plane 
of orbit. Why does sun seem to move? Lead pupils to ob- 
serve difference in path of sun. 



OBSERVATION LESSONS. 233 

VL, YII. 
The Sun. 

Comparative size. Distance from earth. (Illustrate by railroad 

train.) 
Spots. — What supposed to be ? Change of form indicates 

what ? 
Eclipses of Sun. — How caused? Kinds. Illustrate, and draw 

conclusions from pupils. 

YIII., IX 
The Moon. 

Light, caused how? Cause of phases? Illustrate. Distance 
from the earth ? Position and names of spots V Spots indi- 
cate what? Probable appearance from the moon of our 
earth ? Eclipse explained. 

X.-XTI. 
Planets. 

Appearance and movements of planets that are in sight ? 

Names? Planets in sight at different seasons? Kelative 

size of each? Comparative length of year? Comparative 

length of day? JNIoons and rings? Which planets have 

phases? Conjunction of planets? Probability of habitation? 

XIII.-XX. m 

Fixed Stars. 

Appearance, how different from planets when seen through 

telescope? Why? Give idea of distance by railway ti-ain. 

Do they change their relative position as do the planets ? 

Cause of difference. Position and names of stars of first 

magnitude. Constellations observed and named ; position 

of stars noted. Results of observation brought into the 

class. 

PHYSICS. 

In conducting lessons in Physics the teacher should 
be careful to lead the pupils to correct conclusions 
through their own observation. The observation is 



234 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

what is actually seen, and should not be confounded 
with the experiment which precedes it nor with the 
inference which follows. The experiments should be 
made b}^, or in presence of, the pupils, with simple 
apparatus. To show the order and character of the 
work which may be done, and the kind of apparatus 
used, the following outline of topics for twenty lessons 
is presented. It is taken largely from the elementary 
course pursued in the Bridgewater (Mass.) State Nor- 
mal School. 

The Roman numerals indicate the lessons, but some- 
times not so much can be done. 

I. Matter, Body, Substance. 

Exp. ]. Place a pencil upon the table. Put another in the 
same place without moving the first. Obs. Cannot do it. Inf. 
Pencil takes up room [occupies space]. 

Exp. 2. Fill a bottle with water. Put more in. Obs. Cannot 
do it. Inf. Water occupies space. 

Exp. 3. Close one end of a glass tube. Press other end into 
the water. Obs. Water does not fill. Inf. Air occupies space. 

Call anything that occupies space "matter." Call a limited 
portion of matte^a " body." 

Exp. 4. Taste salt and sugar. Obs. The taste is different. 
Inf. They are different kinds of matter. 

Exp. 5. Feel of soap and stone. Obs. They feel different. 
Inf. They are different kinds of matter. 

[In the same way smell of coffee and of tea ; examine color of 
leaf and bark ; strike on wood and glass, etc. Bring out the infer- 
ence that they are different kinds of matter.] 

Call a kind of matter a " substance." 

[Much of the time of the first lesson may have to be given to 
leading the pupils to distinguish the difference between an experi- 
ment and an observation, and to lead them to make correct infer- 
ences. If care is not taken, they will be inclined to infer too 
much.] 



OBSERVATION LESSONS. ^ 235 

II. Changes in Matter. 

Exp. 1. Examine a match. Obs. A red end with peculiar 
smell, a yellow tip, white wood. Inf. Made of different substances. 

Exp. 2. Burn and then examine. Obs. Smell goes off with 
the smoke, red and yellow disappear, also the white wood ; a soft, 
black substance is left. Inf. Change of substance. Call such a 
change in matter a " chemical change." 

Exp. 3. Drop a match. Obs. Change of place. 

Exp. 4. Examine the dropped match. Obs. Looks the same 
as at first. Inf. Xo change of substance. Call such a change a 
" physical change." 

Exp. 5. Leave a match on table. Obs. No change. Inf. 
Change must have a cause. 

Call a cause of change in matter " force." 

Call a cause of chemical change in matter "chemical force." 

Call a cause of physical change in matter "physical force." 

Call the knowledge of physical force and its effects " physics." 

Call the knowledge of chemical force and its effects "chemistry." 

Exp. 6. Tear paper with fingers. Obs. A change in paper. 
Inf. Force exerted by fingers caused the change. Call this " mus- 
cular force." 

Exp. 7. Take plaster of Paris, wet and pour out on glass plate. 
Obs. From powder it soon becomes solid. Inf. Force holds the 
parts together. Call this force "cohesion." 

Call any force that draws or holds bodies together an' " attrac- 
tive force." 

Exp. 8. Mark with lead-pencil on paper. Obs. Particles of 
lead stick to the paper. Lead and paper are unlike. Inf. Force 
holds the unlike parts together. It is an attractive force. Call 
this force "adhesion." 

Exp. 9. Drop a pencil. Obs. The pencil moves downward to 
the floor. Inf. Force causes it to fall. It is an attractive force. 
Call this force " gravity." 

III. Changes in Matter. 

Exp. 1. Hold a piece of sealing-wax near the flame of a match. 
Obs. Wax softens and melts. Inf. Force caused this change. 
Call this force " heat." 



236 • METHODS OF TEACHING. 

Exp. 2. Prepare two pieces of paper with nitrate of siU-^er. 
Keep one in the dark. Obs. No change of pajoer in the dark. 

Exp. 3. Cover part of other with card, and expose to light. 
Obs. The part exposed to the liglit turns dark. Inf. Force caused 
this change. Call this force " light." 

Exp. 4.- Burn a match. Obs. Wood changed to different sub- 
stance. Inf. Force caused this change. Call this force "chemical 
affinity." 

Exp. 5. Put a knife-blade on magnet. Touch it to some iron 
tacks. Obs. Tacks are draw^i to knife. Inf. Force caused this 
motion. It is an attractive force. Call this force " magnetism." 

Exp. 6. Rub a stick of sealing-wax with a piece of dry flannel, 
and bring wax near bits of paper. Obs. The bits of paper are 
drawn to the wax. Inf. Force caused this motion. It is an 
attractive force. Call this force "electricity." 

Exp. 7. Touch a metal button to cheek. Obs, Button feels 
cold. 

Exp. 8. Rub button briskly on sleeve, and then touch to cheek. 
Obs. Button feels warm after rubbing. Inf. By using muscular 
force "heat" is produced. 

Exp. 9. Rub sealing-w^ax with dry flannel, and bring near bits 
of paper. Obs. Paper is drawn to w^ax. Inf. By using muscular 
force " electricity " is produced. 

Exp. 10. Burn match, and while burning look at it ; hold a 
hand near it. Obs. Flame is bright; hand is warmed. Inf. By 
using chemical affinity "heat" and "light " are produced. 

Exp. 11. Bring a match near the flame of a burning match. 
Obs. Match kindles and burns. Inf. By using heat " chemical 
affinity " is formed. 

These forces are so related to each other, that by using one 
we may get some of the others. 

IV. States of Matter and Qualities of Bodies. 

Exp. 1. Place a pebble on the table. Press it with the finger. 
Obs. No change. Inf. Body tends to keep its form ; parts held 
together firmly. Call such a body a "solid." 

Exp. 2. Place drop of water on the table, and press it with the 



OBSERVATION LESSONS. 237 

finger. Obs. Water spreads out, and the parts move away from 
one another. Inf. The parts are held together loosely and move 
freely among themselves. Can change its form easily. Call such 
a body a " liquid." 

Exp. 3. Boil a little water in a test-tube over a candle-flame. 
Obs. Steam rises and disappears in the air. Inf. Parts are not 
held together, and tend to separate without pressure. Call such a 
body a " gas." 

Call liquids and gases " fluids." 

Exp. 4. Pass the finger along edges of a book. Obs. The finger 
can move up or down, right or left, forward or backward. Inf. 
Body extends in three directions. Say that the book has " exten- 
sion." 

Exp. 5. Repeat Exp. 4. Obs. The finger can move only a 
certain distance in each direction. Inf. The extension is limited. 
This gives the book "form" or "shape." 

Exp. 6. Close the fingers of one hand around one finger of the 
other hand. Take out finger, leaving an opening. Put other hand 
in. Obs. Cannot do it. Inf. Hand occupies more space than the 
finger. Call the amount of space occupied by a body its "size" 
or " volume." 

Exp. 7. Put book on table ; put another in same place without 
moving the first. Obs. Cannot do it. Inf. The two books cannot 
occupy the same space at the same time. Say that the book has 
" impenetrability." 

Exp. 8. Put book on table ; push it. Obs. The body moves. 
Inf. A body can be moved. Say that the book has " mobility." 

V. Qualities of Bodies. 

Exp. 1. Put book on table ; do not touch it. Obs. The book 
does not move. Inf. The book cannot move itself. Say that the 
book has "inertia." 

Exp. 2. Hold book in the hand. Obs. Hand is pressed down- 
ward. Inf. Book presses hand downward. Call this pressure 
" weight." 

Exp. 3. Tear a piece of paper ; tear each piece. Obs. The piece 
is divided into parts ; each piece is divided into parts. Inf. The 



238 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

body can be divided indefinitely. Say that the body has " divisi- 
bility." 

Exp. 4. Look at a bit of sponge. Obs. There are open spaces 
in sponge. Call these "pores." 

Exp. 5. Put a drop of water on table ; dip into it a bit of blot- 
ting-paper. Obs. The water disappears in the paper. Inf. There 
are ojDen spaces or pores in the pa^^er. Say that these bodies are 
"porous," and have "porosity." 

Exp. 6. Fit a cork into a test-tube or a bottle ; through this 
cork pass tightly a glass tube; fill bottle and part of tube with 
water; tie string around tube at surface of water; set bottle in 
dish of hot water, or wrap around it a cloth wet in hot water. 
Obs. The water rises in the tube. Inf. The parts have separated 
from each other. Say that the body has "expansibility." [By ex- 
periments with a soft cork infer that the body regains its form by 
its own effort. Say that the body is " elastic," and has " elasticity."] 

VI. Effects of Force. 

Exp. 1. Place a marble on table ; strike it with finger. Obs. 
Force exerted ; marble moves. Inf. The force caused the motion. 

Exp. 2. Rest the book on the hand, just above the table ; take 
away the hand. Obs. Downward pressure on the hand; the book 
falls. Inf. The force which caused the book to fall caused the 
pressure. 

Exp. 3. Place book on floor; lift it to the table. Obs. Force 
exerted ; work done. Inf. The force does work ; force causes 
"motion" and "pressure," and "does work." 

Exp. 4. Put marble on table ; strike it with finger just hard 
enough to move. Obs. Marble moves. 

Exp. 5. Put book on table and strike it with same force. Obs. 
Book does not move. Inf. Something prevents motion. 

Exp. 6. Place smooth paper on sleeve ; move finger along paper 
and then along sleeve. Obs. Motion is lessened when sleeve is 
reached. Inf. Something lessens motion. Call anything that pre- 
vents or lessens motion a " resistance." 

Exp. 7. Hold a marble in one hand and a bullet in the other. 
Obs. Bullet is heavier than the marble. 



OBSERVATION LESSONS. 239 

Exp. 8. Place each on the table. Obs. Xeither moves. Inf. 
Both have inertia. 

Exp. 9. Strike marble with little force ; strike bnllet with more 
force. Obs. Marble does not move ; bullet does not move. Inf. 
Inertia is a " resistance." 

Exp. 10. Strike marble with just force enough to move it; 
strike bullet with same force. Obs. Marble moves; bullet does 
not move. Inf. Heavier body offers more resistance — has more 
inertia. 

Exp. 11. Place book on table and apply force enough to move it. 
Obs. Book moves. Inf. Book has inertia ; inertia overcome. 

Exp. 12. Put another similar book on first, and apj^ly the same 
force. Obs. Xo motion. Inf. Two books have more inertia than 
one. The more matter, tlie more inertia. [In the same manner, 
by experiments with paper, rough and smooth, a stick and a marble, 
lead the pupils to infer that, (1) air offers resistance ; (2) surface 
of paper offers resistance (friction) ; (3) pressure increases the 
friction ; (^) cohesion offers resistance ; (.5) body tends to keep 
moving (inertia) ; (6) force has "direction " and "intensity."] 

VII. Properties of Motion. 

[Apparatus needed : marble, pencil, shingle, bullet, flbert, brick.'] 
Teach following properties of Motion : Direction, Velocity, Mo- 
mentum, Energy. 

The various inferences from experiments observed will be, (1) 
The motion has direction. The motion is the same as the direc- 
tion of the force which produced the motion. (2) The greater 
distance was passed in the same time because more force was applied. 
(Call the distance passed in a given time "speed" or "velocity.") 
(o) The marble in motion exerted force. It got this force from 
the hand. (Call the force of a body in motion "momentum.") (4) 
Inertia of shingle greater than momentum of marble. (5) Momen- 
tum of bullet more than momentum of marble. The heavy body 
has more momentum than a light one moving at the same rate. 
(6) Inertia of book greater than momentum of marble. (7) The 
body has more momentum because its velocity is greater. The 
momentum depends upon the force used. (8) The motion of the 
brick enabled it to do work. (Call the power to do work "energy.") 



240 METHODS OF TEACHING. 



VIII. Effect of Several Forces acting together. 

(1) In same direction. (2) In opposite direction, (o) At an 
angle. (4) Parallel. (5) Unlike. (6) Equilibrium. 

Exp. 1. Suspend a pulle}^, and over it pass a cord; to one end 
attach a tAvo-ounce weight ; attach a two-ounce weight to other end. 
Obs. The first weight is held up. 

Exp. 2. Take off second weight. Obs. The first weight falls. 

Exp. 3. Raise second weight a little with the hand. Obs. The 
first weight moves downward. Inf. The second weight holds up 
the first weight. 

Exp. 4. In place of second weight attach two one-ounce weights. 
Obs. The first weight is held up. 

Exp. 5. Raise small weights with hand. Obs. The first weight 
moves downward. Inf. Two one-ounce weights do same work as 
two-ounce weight m same direction. Each force does same work as 
when acting alone. 

[In the same way show that a three-ounce weight in one direc- 
tion, and a one-ounce weight in an opposite direction, do the same 
work as a two-ounce weight in the direction of the three-ounce 
weight. Each force (in opposite direction) does same work as 
when acting alone.] 

Exp. 6. Place a marble on the table ; snap it directly to 
the right, then directly forward, and observe the motion in each 
case. 

Exp. 7. Snap it in both directions at same time. Obs. The 
marble moves in a direction between two former motions ; it moves 
in a straight line. Inf. Each force does the same work as when 
acting alone. 

Exp. 8. Take a piece of lath one foot long, make a hole in the 
middle, and suspend by a string ; make similar holes one inch 
apart on each side, first hole one inch from the middle ; make 
hooks by bending pins, and suspend from each of the holes. Mark 
off with a ruler a piece of sheet-lead one inch square, and cut 
several of them; make a hole in one corner of each, and put in a 
thread to suspend it by. With this piece of apparatus show, (1) 
Equal weights at equal distance from middle do same work. 
(2) By doubling the distance of the weight from middle, we make 



OBSERVATION LESSONS. 241 

it do double the work. (3) By doubling the weight at the same 
distance, the work done is doubled. (4) By doubling both weight 
and distance, four times the work is done. 

IX. Cohesion and Adhesion. 

Exp. 1. Press two bullets together. Obs. They come apart 
easily. Inf. Cohesion does not act. 

Exp. 2. Scrape one side of each bullet; press together, and 
pull apart. Obs. They do not come apart easily. Inf. Cohesion 
holds tliera together. 

Exp. 3. In a tumbler of hot M^ater slowly put powdered alum ; 
continue till alum begins to fall to bottom of tumbler. Obs. Alum 
disappears in the water. 

Exp. 4. Take a twig from some plant, clean, and hang in the 
water ; let the water cool quietly. Obs. The particles of alum 
have been brought together again ; the body has a definite form. 
Inf. Cohesion has acted ; cohesion has arranged the particles in a 
definite way. 

[In the same way teach the following effects of Cohesion : Hard- 
ness, Tenacity, Elasticity, Flexibility, Ductility, Malleability, Brittle- 
ness. Also lessons on Adhesion, showing that solids adhere to 
solids, that solids and liquids adhere, and that solids and gases 
adhere. 

X., XL Gravity. 

Direction, Supporting Forces, Centre of Gravity, Stability. 

To teach Direction, give the following experiments, having pupils 
observe and infer as before. — Exp. 1. Take one end of a string 
in each hand; hold left hand still, moving right hand toward the 
riglit ; stretch the string ; do the same upward ; do the same down- 
ward. 

Exp. 2. Tie'a stone to one end of a string, and hold other end 
in hand. 

Exp. 3. Draw circle upon paper, and from two points outside 
draw lines straight toward the circumference ; extend these lines 
into the circle. 

To teach Supporting Forces. — Exp. 1. Place on table a soft 
lump of salt ; on this place a heavy book. 



242 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

Exp. 2. Place the same book on a small stone. (Cohesion 
overcomes gravity.) 

Exp. 3. INIoisten finger, touch to bit of paper, and raise finger. 
(Adhesion overcomes gravity.) 

Exp. 4. Bring steel pen near a knife-blade, and remove the 
hand. 

Exp. 5. Rub knife-blade on magnet, and repeat No. 4. 

Exp. 6. Bring bits of paper near a stick of sealing-wax, and 
remove the hand. 

Exp. 7. Rub wax on sleeve, and then repeat No. 6. 

To teach Centre of Gravity. — Exp. 1. Place book on table. 

Exp. 2. Balance a pencil horizontally on finger. 

Exp. 3. Cut pasteboard in form of a triangle ; make a hole near 
each end ; tie in a string to hold it by ; make a plumb-line, and 
suspend string and plumb-line from the same finger ; mark on the 
pasteboard the direction of the plunjb-line. 

Exp. 4. Suspend from each corner, and repeat No. 3. 

Exp. 5. Rest the pasteboard on the point of a pin at the point 
of intersection of the lines. 

Exp. 6. Make a pin-hole at this point, put pin through, and 
turn body into different positions. 

Exp. 7. Suspending pasteboard by a string, draw body to 
one side. 

To teach Stability. — Exp. 1. Rest a small piece of board on 
end'; overturn it by turning it on one corner; observe force used, 
and motion of centre of gravity. 

Exp. 2. Overturn by turning on edge ; observe as before. 

Exp. 3. Balance pencil on point of finger. 

Exp. 4. Move it in either direction. 

Exp. 5. Suspend a plumb-line from hand. 

Exp. 6. Move body either way, then free. 

Exp. 7. Roll a marble on table. 

XIL, XIII. Weight. 

In this lesson explain principle of Balance and Steelyard by 
simple experiments. 

Take same stick as in study of parallel forces ; cut two pieces 



OBSERVATION LESSONS. 243 

of sheet-lead exactly two inches square ; hollow in middle to make 
little pans ; make a hole in each corner of each, and by threads 
from corners suspend from hooks on each end of stick. Call this a 
Balance. Suspend by middle string; in one pan put one lead 
weight, in other pan put some sand. 

Take a piece of lath and make a balance with unequal arms, 
like a steelyard ; from longer arm hang a stone, and call it P. 
Hang one weight on hook on short arm ; move stone till they bal- 
ance. Mark place 1 ; put 2, 3, 4, 5 weights, and mark place where 
P balances. Hang piece of wood from hook, and move P till they 
balance. (Each pupil should construct his own balance.) 

XIV. Pendulum. 

Suspend a bullet by a fine thread from a fixed support. 

Exp. 1. Draw it to one side ; free it. 

Exp. 2. Draw it a little to one side, and free. Count oscilla- 
tions for fifteen seconds. 

Exp. 3. Repeat, only drawing farther. 

Exp. 4. Make string six inches long. Oscillate, and count as 
before. 

Exp. 5. Make string tw^elve inches long. Repeat. 

XV. Effect of Gravity on Liquids. 

By experiments show that, (1) Gravity causes water to fall. (2) 
Falling water has momentum. (3) Gravity causes water to run 
down hill. (4) Running water has momentum. 

To teach the effect of gravity on liquids supported, give the fol- 
lowing experiments : — 

Exp. 1. Tie a piece of thin rubber on one end of an Argand 
lamp-chimney; fill chimney with water. 

Exp. 2. Fit a cork tightly into other end of chimney ; through 
a hole in cork pass a glass tube with a bend near one end ; hold 
chimney horizontally, and partially fill tube with water. 

Exp. 8. Fill tube wholly. 

Exp. 4. Cut a piece of lead a little larger than lamp-chimney; 
suspend by a string through a hole in the middle ; insert chimney 



244 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

in a jar of water, and hold lead close to the bottom by the string 
through the chimney ; release the lead. 

Exp. 5. Release the lead near the surface. 

Exp. 6. Close one end of a tube with finger, and press open 
end into a jar of water. 

Exp. 7. liemove the finger. 

[The facts to be shown by these experiments are, that w^ater 
presses downward and laterally ; that pressure depends upon depth 
of water; that Avithin the water there is upward pressure; and 
that upward pressure at the bottom of tube is due to the down- 
ward pressure of the water around it. Prove also that w^ater tends 
to have the same level, and that pressure is transmitted through 
the water downward, laterally, and upward.] 

XVI. Loss OF Weight. Floating Bodies. 

By familiar experiments show that a body immersed in water 
weighs less than out of it; that upward pressure of water supports 
a part of the weight ; that the body displaces its owm volume of 
water; that loss of weight equals w^eight of water displaced. Also 
show that lead is heavier than equal volume of water; that a body 
sinks because it is heavier than an equal volume of water ; that a 
body floats because it is lighter than an equal volume of water ; 
and that heavier liquids hold up the lighter. 

XVII. Pressure and Elasticity of Atmosphere. 
Barometer. 

With an Argand chinmey, covered at one end with rubber, show 
that atmosphere presses the rubber downward, upward, and later- 
ally. Also, by pressing open end of chimney into water, show 
that air in the tube is compressed ; that the compressed air is 
elastic. 

To illustrate principle of barometer : — 

Exp. 1. Take an empty horse-radish bottle, having a tight-fitting 
cork, and partly fill with water. In the cork make tw^o holes for 
two glass tubes. Through one put a bent glass tube. Close one 
end of a long straight tube with a cork, fill with w-ater, insert, and 
pass through other hole so that the open end shall be below the 



\ 



LNFORMATION LESSONS. 245 

level of the water. Obs. The water stays in the tube above the 
level of the water in the bottle. Inf. The pressure of the atmos- 
phere on surface of the water in bottle holds up the water in the 
tube. 

Exp. 2. Through tube draw air from bottle. Obs. Water falls 
in the tube. 

Exp. 3. Admit air again. Obs. Water vises in the tube. Inf. 
The height of water in the tube varies with the pressure of the 
atmosphere. 

XVIII.-XX. 

The time of these three lessons may be well spent in making 
siphon, common lifting-pump, and forcing-pump. With lamp- 
chimney, corks, leather, and small pieces of wood, the pupils can by 
degrees construct the pump, and explain all the principles involved. 

INFORMATION LESSONS. 

In addition to the information given in connection 
with the regular lessons, there should be taken ten or 
fifteen minutes daily for what may be called an informa- 
tion lesson, in which facts of a general character are 
given. 

PRIMARY GRADES. 

In the primary grades the information should be 
of a very simple character, the aim being to lead the 
children to think and inquire about common things 
around them. Frequently the subjects talked about 
may be suggested by the observation lessons. Interest- 
ing facts which cannot be gathered by the child's ob- 
servation may be told; as for example, the description 
of wild animals or the kikd of life half-civilized and 
savage people lead, or the kind of plants which grow 
in tropical regions. Sometimes the information may 



246 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

be given in answer to questions. Two or three ques- 
tions may be written on the blackboard, to be answered 
the following day. What the children cannot answer 
should be supplied by the teacher. 

The following questions may be of some assistance 
to teachers of primarj^ and ungraded schools : — 

What is flour made of ? 
Why do we plant trees? 

Where does the rain come from, and where does it go to? 
Of wdiat are baskets made ? Boxes ? Bags ? 
When the tin wears off, what is left? 
What is a grocery ? A dry-goods store ? 
What w^ould you probably see in a farm-yard ? 
Name some articles made of iron. Of wood. Of tin. 
Why do people gather hay in summer? Why do they dry it? 
Why should we be kind to animals ? 
Tell me all you know about hay. Corn. Flour. 
Of what use is a thermometer ? A weather-vane ? 
Tell me something the horse can do. The dog. The cat. 
W^hat animal does mutton come from ? Veal ? Beef ? Pork ? 
Wliat becomes of snow when it melts ? 
Should we stare at strangers? Why not ? 

Tell me the names of the different kinds of birds you have seen. 
Why do we not see the stars in the daytime ? 
Wliere and how is coal obtained? Wood? Oil? Cheese? Paper? 
Where does tea come from ? Sugar? Rice? Raisins? 
AVhat do people use for fuel ? For light ? 
Name the different modes of travelling. 
Where do the different kinds of fruit w^e eat grow ? 
W^hat w^ould you find at the seashore ? 

How are ships useful to us? How large are they? Of what are 
they made? 

Of what is each article of our dress made? 
Name the country, State, county, and town in which you live ? 
Who is President of the United States ? Governor of this State? 
What is it to be useful ? Selfish ? Benevolent ? 



INFORMATION LESSONS. 247 

What is meant by a flock ? A drove? A swarm ? 

Mention a polite act. Some rude acts. Some kind acts. 

What plays do you like best ? What books ? 

Of the objects you have seen to-day, which are natural and 
which are artificial ? 

Tell the seasons of the year, and some pleasant things of each. 

Name the days of tlie week. The months of the year. 

Tf everything you can see were taken out of the schooh'oom, of 
what would it still be full ? 

If the sun does not shine in the room till afternoon, which way 
does the room face ? 

AVhy are the 22d of February, the 17th of June, and the 4th of 
July, holidays ? 

What do we call the young of the goat ? Of the horse? Of the 
cow ? Of tlie cat ? 

From what are bricks made? How? 

Of what is bread made ? 

Where do potatoes grow? Apples? Strawberries? Blueberries? 

AVhere does the moon get its lig ht ? 

Why do we not see the moon in the daytime ? 

Who is meant by grandfather? Grand-daughter? Uncle? Aunt? 
Cousin? Xephew? Niece? 

How long does it take the minute-hand of a clock to go round 
once ? 

How many things does it take to make a dozen ? A score? 

Of what are buttons made? Glass? Cotton cloth? Woollen 
cloth? Linen cloth? Leather? 

GRAMMAR GRADES. 

General information for older pupils should take a 
wide range, including subjects which may be classed 
under the following heads : — 

1. News of the day or week. 2. Civil government. 3. Ani- 
mals, Plants, Minerals. 4. Morals and Manners. 

The amount of time to be given to each of these 
subjects cannot be definitely prescribed, it being well 
in such a matter to be guided by circumstances. 



248 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

At the time of the town, city, or State election, 
considerable attention to civil government should be 
given ; and wlien interesting or important events 
are transpiring, it would be advisable to spend more 
time upon the newspaper exercise. Sometimes the 
observation lessons may excite such an interest in nat- 
ural history as to make it desirable to give two or three 
general exercises a week upon information connected 
with animals, plants, and minerals. Generally, how- 
ever, it will be Avell to be guided by the rule of having 
two lessons a week in News, one in Civil Government, 
one in Natural History, and one in Morals and Manners. 

Newspaper. — An excellent opportunity is afforded 
to study geography, history, and all the political and 
social questions of the day, by means of the daily or 
weekly newspaper. There is a variety of ways in which 
this exercise may be conducted. Three or four pupils 
may be appointed to give at each lesson an abstract of 
the news, with such explanations and comments as they 
can give. Or volunteers may be called for from the 
entire school to give some item of news; Care should 
be taken that the news selected or related be of an 
important or useful character. Merely exciting and 
unimportant events should be passed by, one object of 
the exercise being to interest the pupils in that part of 
the newspaper which is of most importance to them, and 
to lead them into good habits of reading the newspaper. 

Sometimes it may be well for tlie teacher to give the 
items of news, asking one and another of the pupils to 
locate certain places spoken of, and to tell what they 
can in explanation of the events related. For example, 
certain acts of Parliament or of Congress may be spoken 



INFORMATION LESSONS. 249 

of, such as home-rule or the tariff. The pupils could 
be asked what legislation had been attempted before, 
and what would be the possible effect of the present 
law. Events in Russia or Greece might suggest ques- 
tions of boundary, government, religion, and labor or 
other social questions. Atlases and maps should be 
consulted by the pupils to ascertain the location of 
places unknown to them. 

The following topics may be suggestive : — 
Acts of Congress, Parliament, and other legislative bodies. Ex- 
isting wars : progress and cause. Expeditions and their purpose. 
Maiket reports. Shipping news : arrivals and departures ; exports 
and imports. Important court decisions. Results of elections. 

Civil Government. — For the purpose of giving 
pupils a better idea of government, and of instilling 
into their minds high ideas of the duties of citizenship, 
regular instruction should be given in the grammar 
grades upon the following topics : — 

Duties, manner of election, and time of service, of Selectmen, 
Assessors, School Committee, Town or City Treasurer, Collector, 
Aldermen, ]Mayor, County Commissioner, Sheriff, Register of Deeds, 
Judges, ]\Iembers of State Legislature, Governor, Secretary of 
State, Attorney-General, State Treasurer, Members of Congress, 
President, jSIembers of Cabinet. 

Names of officers elected at the last National, State, and tow^n 
elections. 

Necessity and use of government and law. 

Duties of citizens in respect to the laws. 

Advantages of co-operation and arbitration. 

Laws in relation to schools, to property, highways, etc. 

The civil service. Foreign service. 

Existing political parties. Principles of each. History. 

Animals, Plants, Minerals. — The time of the obser- 
vation lessons is given mainly to observing things 



250 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

in nature. Such lessons will constantly suggest other 
interesting matter, which may be told the pujiils, or 
which the pupils may learn from books. Such subjects 
as the following will profitably occupy the attention of 
the pupils at least once a week : — 

Habits of animals, both wild and domestic. 

Uses of animals, alive and dead. 

Manner of growth and culture of all articles of food, including 
tropical fruits, spices, grains. 

Description, value, and use of precious stones and other 
minerals. 

Sometimes questions like the following may be given 
out, to be answered by the pupils or teacher on the 
following day : — 

How is salt got from sea-water? 

What is saltpetre, and what is its use ? 

How is gunpowder made ? 

What is phosphorus, and what is its use? 

What is soda, and what is its use ? 

W^hat is potash, and what is its use ? 

How is lime obtained ? 

What is marble? What kinds are there, and where found? 

What is chalk ? Plaster of Paris ? 

How are lead-pencils made ? 

What is peat, and how is it prepared for fuel ? 

What is coal made from? 

What is petroleum or kerosene oil, and how is it prepared for use ? 

How are bricks made? Earthenware? 

Of what and how is porcelain made ? 

How is glass made ? How is it made into bottles, goblets, etc.? 

How are school-slates and slate-pencils made ? 

How is iron got from the ore ? 

What is wrought iron ? 

What is steel ? Uses ? 

What is bronze ? Kinds and uses? 



INFORMATION LESSONS. 251 

How are pins made ? 

How are looking-glasses made? 

Where do we get lead from ? How obtained ? 

What are stereotype plates, and how are tliey made ? 

What is tin ? How used ? 

Of what and how are coins made ? 

How is gold obtained from rocks ? From sand ? 

Uses of nickel ? 

What is dynamite, and how made ? 

How are macaroni and vermicelli made ? 

How is starch made, and what is its use? 

AVhat is malt? Its use? 

What is the difference between fermented and distilled liquors ? 

What is sago ? How made ? 

What is tapioca ? How made ? 

Place and manner of growth of the gourd? the leek? garlic? 
cauliflower? peanuts? pineapples? dates? figs? raisins? banana? 
pomegranate? tea? coffee? cloves? etc. 

What is candy made of? What ingredients are unhealthful? 

How is camphor made ? Uses ? 

From what is gum arable made? India rubber? 

How does flax grow, and what is made from it? Hemp? Cotton? 

What is tow ? Jute ? 

Describe cambric ; lawn ; muslin ; canvas ; nankeen. 

How and from what is lace made ? Calico ? 

From what and how is paper made? Different kinds of paper? 

Uses of oak ? Maple ? Willow ? etc. 

How is resin made, and what are its uses? Tar? Lampblack? 

Place, manner of growth, and uses of mahogany ? Ebony ? Bam- 
boo? Logwood? Palm? 

Manner of making cheese ? 

What are Durham cattle? Ayshire? Alderney? Jersey? 

How are candles made ? Soap ? 

Difference between woollen goods and worsted goods? 

What kinds of woollen goods? 

What is felting? 

How are carpets made? Different kinds of carpets? 

How is leather made ? Uses ? 



252 METHODS or TEACHING. 

Kinds of fur, and where obtained? 

Uses of ivory? How obtained? 

How is wax made, and what are its uses? 

How and where is silk made ? 

What is velvet? Satin? Brocade? (lauze? Crape? 

What is obtained from the whale ? 

What is mother-of-pearl, and what are its uses? 

What are shell cameos? 



DRAWING. 

Form. — The study of Form is a necessary accom- 
paniment of drawing, and is begun in the first year of 
school. The apparatus needed for the Form lessons 
given in tlie primary grades are spliere, cube, cylinder, 
pyramid (rectangular and trianguUir), prism (triangular 
and square), cone, spheroid. Forms similar to those 
already named should be provided as they are needed, 
as rubber ball, orange, boxes, dice, lead-pencil, top, etc. 
Clay and proper conveniences for moulding should also 
be provided. It would be well for the pupils to have 
small forms for close observation, and the teacher to 
have a large form by which to direct the attention of 
pupils. The first few lessons will consist of simple 
comparison of familiar objects with respect to form. 
An object (as a ball) may be presented, and the pupils 
be asked to find another object like it in form. In tliis 
way resemblances and differences of form may be ob- 
served before the forms are named or before the parts 
are examined. 

The first object for particular study is the sphere. 
It is first presented as a whole, and the following facts 
are observed and expressed by the pupils : — 



DEAWLN^G. 253 

It is round. 

It will roll in all directions. 

It has an evenly-curved surface. 

The teacher then gives the name of the object, and the 
pupils say, " It is called a sphere." 

The cube and cylinder are next presented, and facts 
observed as follows : — 

1. General shape. 

2. Number of surfaces (faces). 

3. Form of surfaces. 

4. Equality of surfaces. 

5. Edges : 

(a) number ; (h) kind ; (c) equality. 

6. Corners : 

(rt) number ; (h) kind. 

7. Things which its form enables it to do. 

8. Similar forms : 

(a) to the entire object ; (b) to each part. 

The object is then moulded in clay, and the surfaces 
drawn upon the slate or paper. It will be seen that the 
study of surfaces, lines, and angles will be carried on in 
connection with the study of solids. The simple names, 
plane and curved, straight and curved, square, blunt, 
and sharp, may first be used in describing the surfaces, 
edges, and corners. 

After the sphere, cube, and cylinder have been 
studied, they may be divided into two or more sections, 
and the parts may be studied in the same general way 
as the original wholes. The triangular and square 
prism, pyramid, the cone, and spheroid are next taken 
in order, and studied as were the cube and cylinder. 
The introduction of more technical names may be begun 
at this point, as the names of the angles and triangles ; 



254 METHODS OF TEACHIXG. 

also diameter, diagonal, circumference. Invention may 
also be begun here, color being combined Avith form. 
The sticks or colored paper of different shapes may be 
placed in order, beginning with the most simple designs, 
and proceeding slowly in complexity. At first the pupils 
will require considerable aid from the teacher. By 
degrees the pupils will be led to depend more upon 
themselves, until the designs are entirely original. 

The following plan of Form lessons pursued in the 
Practice Department of the Framingham (Mass.) Normal 
School will be found helpful to teachers who can give 
more attention to the study of Form than is indicated 
in the Course of Studies. The outline is prepared by 
Miss Ellen A. Williams, critic teacher of the school. 

FORM. 
Primary School. — First Year. 

It is best not to take up this subject during the first three 
months of the child's attendance at school, as he has so many- 
other new things to learn. Some lessons in Color should also 
precede those in Form. 

After the child has learned the name of the form, and has become 
familiar with its use in little oral sentences, — " The sphere is on 
the table," " Mary gave the sphere to the teacher," etc., — he 
should learn hy his own observation the following points about each 
form, and should also be led to tell truthfully, in his own words, 
the result of each observation. 

Note. — At first too much stress should not be laid upon the child's 
form of expression ; but as the work progresses through the different 
grades, great care should be taken to draw from him exact and concise 
statements. 

Subjects of First Year's Studj/. — The sj-jhere, cube, and cylinder. 
The first course of lessons should deal with these forms as wholes ; 
that is, without dividing any of them. 



DRAWING. 255 

Name : Spelling learned from written word. Perfect familiarity 
with the spelling should be secm'ed by having the child write a 
sufficient number of short sentences containing the name. 

Form : Sides — number of, shape, relative size, and relative 
position. Edges — number of, kind, relative length, relative posi- 
tion, and formation. Corners — number of, kind, and formation. 

Appearance of form from different points of view when at 
rest. 

Appearance of form from different points of view when twirled. 

Things which its form enables it to do. 

Naming of objects of approximate form which they have seen, 
bringing as many to class as possible. 

Drawing of free-hand f)ictures of plane surfaces bounding the 
solid. 

Drawing of fi'ee-hand outlines of objects of approximate form. 

Moulding in clay the perfect form. 

Moulding in clay simple objects of approximate form. 

Copying in colored papers simple geometrical designs based 
upon the square, when they study the cube ; upon the circle, when 
they study the cylinder ; and upon combinations of square and 
circle, when they have completed the study of both cube and 
cylinder. 

Drawing of these designs upon slate, both in free-hand and by 
tracing' around cardboard squares and circles. 



Second Year. 

Divis{o77s of Sphere, Cube, and Cylinder. 



Sphere 



Cube 



DIVISIONS. 




NEW FOKMS OBTAINED. 


Into two equal 


parts . 


. Hemispheres. 


f a a u 


a 


. Plinths. 


a a a 


u 


. Triangular prisms. 


" four " 


11 


. Oblong blocks. 


(( U (( 


(I 


. Triangular prisms. 


" eight " 


K 


. Cubes (not new forms) 


u a a 


ii 


. Square prisms. 



256 



METHODS OF TEACHING. 



f Into two equal parts . . Cylinders (not new). 
I " " '' " . . Half-cylinders, havingtwo 
Cylinder . . -^ semicircular faces. 

" " " " . . Half-cylinders, having an 
ellipse for one face. 

The study of each of the new forras obtained by division should 
be carried on in the same order, and as thoroughly as the study of 
the sphere, cube, and cylinder during the first year. 

Last Part of Second Year, or First Part of Third Year. 

Oblate and prolate spheroids, quadrangular, triangular, and 
hexangular pyramids, and the cone. 

This series of lessons to be taken in the same way as the tw^o 
preceding series have been. 

Third Year. 

Divisions of Spheroids, Pyramids, and Cone. 

Each of the spheroids may be divided into two equal similar 
parts in three w^ays ; but as the new forms obtained by these 
divisions are not specific geometric forms, and as they present no 
new surfaces for the child's investigation, it seems wise to spend 
considerably less time upon these forms than upon those which 
precede or follow them. 






Into two parts 



from apex through 
Into two equal parts ] ^1^^^^^,^,, ^f ^^.^ 

from apex through 
t \ diagonal of base 
Into two parts 



^3 
EJo " 



r^ < 



from apex through 
centre of base 



NEW FORMS OBTAINED. 

Frustum of 
pyramid. 
Truncated and 
oblique pyramids. 
Rectangular 
pyramid. 
Triangular 
pyramid. 
Frustum of 
pyramid. 
Truncated and 
oblique pyramids. 
Oblique triangu- 
lar pyramid. 



td"B 
IP 



W 



o 



DRAWING. 257 

f Into two parts Frustum of 

pyramid. 

" " " Truncated and 

oblique pyramids. 

Into two equal parts Trapezoidal 

pyramid. 

« « " " Pentagonal 

pyramid. 

f Into two parts Frustum. 

I " " " " Truncated and 

^ [ oblique cone. 

Fourth Year. 

1. A review of previous work. 

2. A study of surfaces, lines, and angles. 

Here, as in all the preceding work, the things to be studied are 
to be presented to the child, and he is to learn from his own observa- 
tion, and is^o make his own definitions. 

Several illustrations of the special subject of study should be 
presented to the child, and the name given by the teacher. 

The child notes the common characteristics, and gives a de- 
scription. 

An exact and concise definition is gradually drawn from him. 

He gives other illustrations of the same surface, line, or angle. 
1. Surfaces, lines, and angles deriv^ed from the sphere and its 
divisions. 

(1) Curved surface. 

Spherical surface (convex surface, concave surface). 

(2) Plane surface. 

Circle : circumference (arc), chord, segment, diameter; 

semicircle, semicircumference, greater arc, lesser arc, 

degree, radius, sector, quadrant, sextant, octant, angle 

(vertex), right angle, oblique angle (acute angle, obtuse 

angle). 

The child should discover the number of right angles which can 

be made wdth their vertices at the centre of a circle ; also the 

number of acute and obtuse angles which can be placed in the 

same wav. 



258 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

2. Surfaces and lines derived from cube and its divisions. 

Square : parallel sides, perpendicular sides, diameter, oblong, 
diagonal, triangle (vertex, base, altitude), right angles 
(isosceles, scalene), trapezoid, trapezium. 

3. Surfaces of cylinder. 

Cylindrical, ellipse (focus, centre, diameter, major axis, minor 
axis). 

4. Surfaces of spheroids. 

Spheroidal surface. 

5. Surfaces of pyramids. 

Equilateral triangle, hexagon, pentagon. 

6. Surfaces of cone. 

Conical surface. 

7. Lines. 

(1) From divisions of sphere. 

Curved (circular), straight. 

(2) From cube. 

Parallel straight lines, perpendicular lines, horizontal 
lines, vertical lines, inclined or oblique lines. 

(3) From cylinder. 

Elliptical lines. 

Fifth Year. 

The pupil begins his work in inventional geometry, following 
Spencer's text-book on the subject. 

Hitherto nearly all his descriptions and definitions have been 
oral ; from this point they should be written in a blank-book 
devoted to the purpose. 

The problems should be solved by the pupil, and not by the 
teacher. So far as possible the pupil should give reasons for the 
successive steps in his work. 

Work in inventional geometry should be continued in the 
grammar school until the last year. 

During the last year there should be a thorough, scientific 
analysis and classification of all the geometrical knowledge which 
the pupil has acquired during the entire course. Correct concep- 
tions of the geometric solid, surface, line, and point should be 
acquired at this time. 



DRAWING. 259 

Industrial Drawing". — The order followed in the 
primary form lessons is to be continued in all of the 
subsequent work in drawing. From models and other 
objects knowledge is first gained, and afterwards is 
expressed by drawing. Following this, the knowledge 
acquired is combined in new forms by invention and 
design. Whatever books are used, therefore, the pupils 
should not be allowed to draw from " flat copy " with- 
out previous instruction. 

Materials. — Some of the materials used for drawing 
should be provided, and kept for use at all times. 
Other materials may be gathered or made from time to 
time by the pupils themselves. The following mate- 
rials will be found necessary for good work : geometric 
forms, and other forms for observation, such as boxes, 
leaves, flowers, etc. ; sticks and paper (white and col- 
ored), lead-pencils (hard and soft), rulers, compasses, 
rubber erasers, drawing-j^aper and tracing-paper. 

Preparation of Lesson. — To accomplish good results 
in drawing, it will be necessary for the teacher to care- 
fully prepare each lesson. The plan and purpose of the 
books in use should be understood ; and, if a teacher's 
edition is provided, the directions for giving each lesson 
should be carefully studied. The correct position of 
book, hand, and body in drawing, the use of eraser and 
ruler, and all other specific directions given in the books, 
should be well understood and observed by the pupils 
under the guidance of the teacher. 

The following hints in regard to the kind of w^ork to 
be done are not intended to take the place of what 
will be found in the books prescribed, but are given to 
assist the teacher in seeing the purpose of drawing, and 
in suggesting valuable supplementary work. 



260 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

Working Draiviiigs. — A working drawing is one b}^ 
means of which an object of a definite form and size 
may be made. As soon as pupils have had some prac- 
tice in drawing the faces of geometric forms, let them 
draw some plane surfaces to scale. The surface of a 
book may be drawn, reducing the dimensions one-half. 
The floor of the schoolroom may be drawn, one inch 
for every foot, etc. Say to the pupils that you want a 
box made of certain dimensions, and ask them to draw 
hasty working views of the top, side, and end, such as 
they would give a carpenter. After practice of this kind, 
draw upon the board free-hand working views of an 
object, and ask the pupils to draw with instruments 
accurate working views. 

All of this work is of the most practical kind, for, 
besides training the hand and eye, it will enable one 
to give proper directions for the manufacture of any 
article. 

Construction of Objects. — The modelling of objects in 
clay is carried on in the primary grades, and may be 
continued to some extent in the grammar grades. This 
work will be especially useful in connection with work- 
ing views. Small cubes, cylinders, cones, etc., may also 
be made with paper or cardboard from drawings pre- 
viously made. The work may be further pursued by 
encouraging the pupils to make articles at home from 
drawings, such as boxes, brackets, and picture-frames. 

Perspective. — The facts of objects are represented 
by working drawings; the appearance., by perspective 
drawings. In making a working drawing, the eye is 
supposed to be opposite each part drawn ; in making a 
perspective drawing, the eye is supposed to be kept 



DRAWING. 261 

in one position. The perspective view of a surface 
placed squarely in front of and near the eye may not 
be unlike the working view in form. Carry the object 
further away, or turn it from a square position, and the 
surface appears smaller. The free-hand drawing of this 
reduced appearance should be begun early in the gram- 
mar school course, and be continued throughout the 
course. Objects having plane surfaces may be first 
drawn, and afterwards other objects, as an apple, an 
orange, a bell, a bat, etc. Not until the later years of the 
grammar school should rules and problems, or instru- 
mental perspective, be taught. 

Invention. — Invention and design, begun in stick 
and paper laying, in the primary grades, should be con- 
tinued throughout the course, both in drawing and ap- 
plied work. With the units of design given (geometric 
and plant forms), and by the judicious direction and 
assistance of the teacher, the work in design will be at 
once the most practical and enjoyable part of the course. 
The rules of arrangement may be found in any good 
series of drawing-books, and will not be difficult to 
understand. 

Home work in making brackets, shades, lamp mats, 
tidies, etc., will not be the least valuable part of the 
lessons in design. 

Outlme of Study. — Teachers may be guided by the 
following outline of an eight years' course of instruction 
for primary and grammar schools used at the Massa- 
chusetts Normal Art School, and in State work under 
direction of the Massachusetts Board of Education, by 
Charles M. Carter. 



262 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

INDUSTRIAL DRAWING.i 
Notes. 

Industrial drawing as herein presented is regarded by many 
educators as the foundation of industrial training. 

It gives skill in the use of hand and eye, good habits of thought, 
and appreciation of the beautiful. 

Drawing and designing are here combined with the construction 
of objects. 

Where workshop instruction is introduced, the drawings and 
constructed work may be of practical examples, referring to courses 
in manual training. This plan shows how the natural tendency 
of children to occupy themselves in making objects at home can 
be made fruitful by intelligent direction. 

It may be used either with or without text-books. Using it as 
a basis, teachers can determine whether to omit or add to the 
exercises of the book. • 

All work may refer to the following or their combinatibns : — 
1. Working drawings. 2. Perspective drawings. 3. Invention or 
design. 4. Constructed objects. 

Outline of Each Year. 

Ideas of form come from observation, they lead to expression, 
and may be combined into new forms by invention or design. 

First Year. — Ten minutes daily, using slates and 
blackboard. 

Observation of the forms of objects in each year, by eye and hand. 

Expression, employing construction, drawing, and language. 

General form of objects: sphere, cube, cylinder, square prism, 
triangular prism. Teach objectively as wholes. Construct each 
of clay. 

Observation and expression further developed by moulding- 
simple objects based on them, as an orange, dice, stick of candy, 
etc. From the objects first used teach the common qualities of 
form, viz., surface (plane and curved), line, and point. 
1 Copyright, 1885, by C. M. Carter. 



DilAWING. Zob 

Commence teaching and representing the details of these quali- 
ties from models and objects : — 

1. Points : position (centre, above, below, right, left). 

2. Lines : direction (straiglit, curved) ; position (vertical, hori- 
zontal, oblique) ; relation (parallel, perpendicular, inclined) ; color 
(light, dark). Dividing into halves and fourths. 

3. Angles: right, acute, obtuse. 

Objects and figures containing the above should be drawn. 
Invention. Optional. If taught, to be similar to that of the 
second primary year. 

Second Year. — Fifteen minutes daily, using slates, paper^ 
and blackboard. 
Review work of the first primary year, including moulding. 
Expression, employing construction, drawing, and language. 
From the following models, — triangular prism, square prism, 
pyramids, etc., — teach : — 

4. Triangle : right-angled, isosceles, equilateral. 

5. Sqviare : diagonals, diameters. 

6. Oblong: judging, measuring, dividing, and ruling distances. 
Draw single free-hand working views of models, objects, and 

ornament illustrating the above plane figures. Construct them of 
clay, paper, wood, etc. 

Substitute paper for the slate during the last half of the year. 

Invention. Principles: symmetry, repetition, and alternation. 
Materials : sticks, colored paper triangles, squares, etc. 

Teach pupils to arrange the materials so as to express the prin- 
ciples. Subsequently replace the materials by lines. Tracing 
around units allowed. 

The materials may also be used to represent various objects, as 
house, ship, etc. Teach the names of colors represented by the 
sticks and papers, and cultivate a taste for beautiful combinations. 

Continue at times in the same lesson, — form, drawing, inven- 
tion, color, arithmetic, language, etc. 

Third Year. — Thirty minutes three times a week, using 
paper and blackboard. 
The first exercises review the work of previous grades, in order 
tiiat special attention may be given to the proper use of paper and 
pencil. 



264 METHODS OF TEACHI^s^G. 

Expression, employing construction, drawing, and language. 
From models and objects teach : — 

7. Circle : semicircle, quadrant, circumference, diameter, radius. 

8. Ellipse : long diameter, short diameter, foci. 

9. Oval. 

Draw single free-hand working views of models, objects, and 
ornament illustrating the above plane figures. Construct them 
from drawings, using wood, paper, etc. Compare the beauty of 
curvature illustrated by different forms. 

Invention and Design. Principles : symmetry, repetition, and 
alternation. Materials: colored paper geometric forms, both sim- 
ple and varied. When pupils create the variations of units, the 
arrangements are called designs. 

Ruling allowed. In all grades teachers should be familiar with 
the principles of growth, contrast, repose, etc. 

Fourth Year. — Thirty minutes three times a tveek; using 
paper and blackboard. 

Review the circle, ellipse, and oval. 

Expression, employing construction, drawing, and language. 

From models and objects teach : — 

10. Compound curves ; reversed curves. 

11. Hexagon. 13. Octagon. 

12. Pentagon. 14. Spiral. 

Draw single free-hand working views of models, objects, and 
ornament illustrating the above plane figures. Construct the plane 
figures, and objects based on them, of paper, wood, etc. 

Design. Principles : symmetry, repetition, and alternation. 
Materials: conventionalized leaves, flowers, and buds. 

Ruling allowed. In all work strive for beauty of form. 

Fifth Year. — Thirty minutes three times a loeeJc, using 
paper and blackboard. 

Expression, employing construction, drawing, and language. 
From models and objects teach and draw : — 
Free-hand working views, single and con<.bined, illustrating 
plans and elevations. Construct the models of paper, first making 



DRAWING. 265 

simple developments. These models will be useful in teaching 
free-hand perspective. 

Perspective views (free-hand). The effects of foreshortening 
and distance explained in connection with drawing spherical 
objects, circles, cones, cylinders, and objects based on them. Ex- 
plain that in a wjorking view the eye is supposed to be opposite 
each part of the view represented. In perspective drawing the eye 
remains in one position. 

Design. Principles: symmetry, repetition, alternation. Making 
arrangements on given main lines introduced. Materials : conven- 
tionalized plant form. Use ruler and tracing-paper. 

Designs may be applied to objects, as pen-wipers, book-marks, 
etc., constructed by pupils. In this and the following years have 
pupils take "main lines" from good examples, and clothe them 
with different material. Cultivate taste by comparing examples 
of good and bad design. 

Sixth Year. — Thirty minutes three times a iceek, using 
paper and blackboard. 

Expression, employing construction, drawing, and language. 

From models and objects teach and draw : — 

Working views, free-hand and instrumental, single and com- 
bined. Two views given to find a third. INIai'king dimensions ; 
simple sections. Construct simple objects from working views, 
especially models useful in free-hand perspective. 

Geometric problems, and their applications. 

Persj^ective views (free-hand). The convergence of parallel 
lines ; drawings made from the cube, oblong block, etc., and 
objects based on them. 

Design. Principles : symmetry, repetition, and alternation. • 
Materials: conventionalized plant form. 

Use rulers, compasses, tracing-paper, and geometric problems. 
Make more elaborate bisym metrical arrangements, with and with- 
out outlines. Exercises may be planned in which designs are 
applied to objects constructed by pupils. Historic ornament or 
naturalistic views of plant form occasionally. Use them as a means 
of cultivatino- taste. 



'2QQ METHODS OF TEACHING. 

Seventh Year. — Thirty minutes three times a week, using 
paper and blackboard. 

Expression, employing construction, drawing, and language. 

From models and objects teach and draw : — 

Working views : free-hand and instrumental, single and com- 
bined ; marking dimensions ; advanced developments ; simple 
intersections. From measurement make full-sized, and scale draw- 
ings; also encourage home construction from drawings of such 
objects as lamp-shades, picture-frames, foot-stools, etc. 

Geometric problems completed. 

Perspective views (free-hand). General review. Prisms, pyra- 
mids, plinths, and objects based on them. Groups, tinting. 

Design. Principles : symmetry, repetition, alternation, and 
balance. Materials : conventionalized plant form and details of 
historic ornament. Use instruments, tracing-paper, and geometric 
problems. Designs may be applied to objects constructed by 
children, such as lamp-mats, pin-cushions, match-boxes, etc. 

Historic ornament or naturalistic views of plant form, occa- 
sionally. In all exercises cultivate appreciation of the beautiful. 

Eighth Year. — Thirty yninutes tJiree times a week, using paper. 

Expression, employing construction, drawling, and language. 

From models and objects teach and draw : — 

Woi'king drawings (free-hand and instrumental). Instrumental 
work to employ the T-square, scale, triangles, and drawing-board. 
Practical illustrations of drawing applied in industrial pursuits, 
sections, intersections, and developments. Continue to encourage 
home construction from drawings of useful objects, such as boxes, 
bird-houses, tool-boxes, brackets, trays, etc. 

Perspective views (free-hand). Frames, crosses, and objects 
based on them. Leaning objects, groups, tinting. 

Design. Optional. Principles previously studied combined with 
those of applied design. Materials: conventionalized plant form, 
historic ornament, nature. 

Design wall-paper, inkstand, paper-w^eight, hinge, etc. Occasionally 
have objects designed that may be constructed by needle-work, etc. 
Miscellaneous ornament illustrating the highest forms of beauty. 

Use draicing freely each year in illustrating other studies. 



SINGING. 267 



SINGING. 



Of the value of singing as a regular exercise in 
school, it is unnecessary to speak. Neither should there 
be any question as to whether it should be regularly 
taught as other subjects are taught. The fact that 
teachers cannot sing, or do not know how to read 
music, should not deter them from introducing the 
subject in their schools. However useful it may be for 
teachers to give good tones as a model for their pupils, 
it is true that many of the most successful teachers of 
singing are those who do not sing. The various school 
singing-books and charts now in use w^ill furnish sug- 
gestions as to the order and amount of work to be done, 
and methods of teaching. 

The following illustrative lessons, prepared by Mr. 
L. W. Mason, of Boston, will assist the regular teachers, 
especially teachers of ungraded schools : — 

I. Finding out how many know the Scale. 

TeacJier. All listen to me, and tell me what I sing. (Teacher 
sings.) 




Do Re Mi Fa Sol La Si Do 

Pupils. You sang the scale. 
Teacher. All may sing as I did. 

[Eight or ten of the class sing correctly, and the teacher should be very 
care/mto let the whole class share the credit.] 



268 



METHODS OF TEACHING. 



Teaclier. That was very -well. Singing as you have just done, 
rom the lowest sound, upwards, is called the ascending scale. You 
may commence with the highest sound and sing 
the scale downwards. 

[The same pupils sing correctly.] 

Teaclier. This is called the descending scale. 

DIAGRAM OF THE SCALE. 



8 


Do 


7 


Si 


6 


La 


5 


Sol 


4 


Fa 


3 


Mi 


2 


Re 


1 


Do 







Teaclier. I am glad that so 
sing the scale up and down, 
picture of the scale, or Music- 
written the scale-names, 1, 2, 
step ; also the syllables which 
ing the scale. You should 
of the scale, so you can sing 
skipping about any way. 



many of you can 
I have drawn a 
Ladder, and have 
3, etc., upon each 
are used in sing- 
know the sounds 
them in order or 



II. Developing the Idea of Two-Part Measure in Con- 
nection WITH singing the Scale, Ascending and 
Descending. 

Teacher. All listen to me, and tell me what I do. 
[Teacher sings with marked accent.] 

T t y t. . f 



^pp_^fei3^giililggB 



Do Do Re Re Mi Mi Fa Fa Sol Sol La La Si Si Do Do 



Teaclier. What did I do? 

Pupils. You sang two of each of the sounds of the scale. 
Teacher. You may sing as I did. 
[It is done correctly.] 

Teacher. That was well done. You may sing the scale down- 
ward, beginning with 8, in the same way as you sang it upward. 
[The pupils do it correctly.] 



SINGING. 269 

Natural Rhythm. — Teacher. Singing two of each of the sounds 
of the scale up and down, as you did just now, you sang the first 
of each pair louder than the second. 

You did this naturalhj : that is, without thinking about it. 
When the time in music arranges itself into groups of twos, one 
loud and one soft, each pair is called a two-part measure. The 
loud part of the measure is called accented ; and the soft part, 
unaccented. 

Beating Tico-Part Measure, or Double-Time. — Teacher. To 
realize more fully, while singing, the accented and unaccented 
parts of measures in Double-Time, as music in two-part measure is 
called, certain motions of the hand are used. This is called 
beating time. 

Directions for Beating Time. — T'eacher. 1. Stand erect, poising 
a little forward. 

2. Place the left hand directly in front of the body, as high as 
the waist, palm upwards, elbow against the side of the body. 

3. Place the right hand in the left, so that the middle finger 
falls into the centre of the palm of the left hand. {Teacher gives 
the example.) 

4. Raise the hand, from the wrist only, about 45 degrees. Strike 
down, and say Down. Hold the hand down ! Strike up, from the 
wrist only, and say Up. Hold the hand up ! 

These are the motions in beating Double-Time. They should be 
as regular as the tick of a clock, and should be made as quickly as 
possible; and the hand should be held perfectly still during the 
time from one beat to another. 

Teacher. We will now proceed to sing the last exercise ; that is, 
two sounds of each of the scale, ascending and descending, while 
beating the time. 

[Done correctly.] 

Teacher. I fear you will become tired if you sing all the time ; 
so I will form the class in two divisions, in order that one division 
may rest while the other sings. 

Those on my right we will call the First Division ; and those on 
my left, the Second Division. 



270 



METHODS OF TEACHING. 



I wish you to sing the scale uj) and down in this way ; namely, 
the First Division to sing the first measure, and the Second Divis- 
ion to sing the second measure, and so on. 

You must continue to beat the time, whether you sing or not. 
In this way each division will rest during every other measure. 

Now! all ready, and see if you understand what I want you 
to do. 

[Enough of the pupils in each division understand so as to do it very- 
well.] 

Teacher. You have done that much better than I thought you 
could. 

III. Development of Three-Part Measure. 

Teacher. Who can tell what I sing now, that is different from 
anything I have sung before ? 
[Teacher sings.] 



'^^^- 



3^:3EE^fe^i^ 



Do Do Do Re Re Re Mi Mi Mi Fa Fa Fa 




::1=i^=z]: 



Sol Sol Sol La La La Si 






iisi 



Si 



Do Do Do 



Pupils. Y'ou sang three of every sound of the scale. 

Teacher. Yes. I will sing the same again, and you may tell me 
which one of the three I sing loud. 

[Teacher sings.] 

Pupils. You sang the first of the three loud, and the other two 
soft. 

Teacher. Yes. You may sing as I did. 

[Pupils sing correctly.] 

Teacher. That is right. This kind of measure, with three parts, 
— one loud and two soft, — is called a three-part measure. 

Teacher. You see that this is another way in which sounds fall 
into groups naturally ; that is, by threes, the first of which is 
accented, and the second and third unaccented. 



SINGING. 271 

Special Drill in Beating Triple-Time. — Teacher. In three-part 
measure there are three dilt'ereiit motions of the hand. The first 
beat is the same as in two-part measure. The second beat is made 
by bringing the hand smartly to the left, so as to touch the body. 
The third beat brings the hand into position for the down-beat of 
the following measure. 

[The pupils are to practise this kind of measure, saying, while heating, 
Down, Left, Up, till the chiss can do it perfectly, accenting the down-heat. 
When this is accomplished, they will he ahle to do the following dictation 
exercises.] 

EXERCISES IN THE SCALE, ASCEXDIXG AND DESCENDING, WITH 
TRIPLE-TIME. 

Teacher. I will sing the last exercise while beating; then I 
want you to do it. 

[The teacher sings the exercise, and the pupils do the same, heing care- 
ful to accent the down-heat.] 

Teacher. That is very well. Now you may sing it by divisions, 

one measure at a time, up and down the scale. 

[This is done correctly.] 

IV. Four-Part Measure. 

Teacher. You may sing four of each of the sounds of the scale, 
by the syllables. 

[The pupils sing.] 

Teacher. That is very well. You may sing the same exercise 
again, and accent the first and third sounds in each measure, the 
first a little louder than the third. 

t T T ! t T f T T ft T 



m^^^=-^^r^^^^^^^ 



Do Do Do Do Re Re Re Re Mi Mi Mi Mi Fa Fa Fa Fa 

r f 1 1 t 



d=:j-^=^r 



■=^=^^^--^-^—^^f=^=^^_ 



^ZZMl 



-^-V--^V 



% 



Sol Sol Sol Sol La La La La Si Si Si Si Do Do Do Do 

[The pupils sing the exercise very well. The leading singers show that 
ihej feel the time, or recurrence of "the accent, — some hy an extravagant 
nod of the head, some hy throwing forward the whole body, and others by 
stamping their feet, — all quite unconsciously.] 



272 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

Teacher. You observed the accented parts very vpell ; but it was 
very funny to see the different motions you made as you became 
interested in keeping the time. Regular practice in beating the 
time will prevent these awkward motions of the body and stamp- 
ing of feet. 

[The pupils may now take position for beating four-part measure.] 

Teacher. The four beats in Quadruple-Time are : Down, Left, 
Right, and Up. 

The Down-beat is made the same as in double and triple time, 
by bringing the tip of the middle finger of the right hand into 
the centre of the palm of the left. 

The Left-beat is made like that of triple time. 

The Right-beat is made by bringing the fingers of the right hand 
from the body on to the fingers of the left hand. 

The Up-beat is made by bringing the hand up again to the posi- 
tion for making the down-beat. 

Now sing — by the syllables — the last exercise, beating the 
time. 

[The pupils do as directed.] 

Teacher. Now sing by divisions, up and down. 

[The pupils do it correctly.] 

Teacher. I am very glad you have become so much interested 
in learning how to sing the scale in the different kinds of time, 
that you have not asked for any songs. If you go on in this way, 
you will soon be able to read music well enough to learn songs by 
the notes, without having ever heard them sung before. 

V. Singing from Figures. 

Teacher. We can wa-ite exercises and tunes in figures. I will 
write a few exercises which you will sing without any difficulty. 

You are to understand that a figure with a comma after it means 
a short sound ; and with a dash after it, means a long sound. Also 
a cipher with a comma after it means a short rest ; and a dash, a 
long rest. {To he sung without heating time.) 

The following may first be sung by the teacher and pupils, then 
by divisions, the first division singing the teacher's part. 



SlNGI^'G. 273 



PITCH IX D OR E. 
I. 



Teacher. Pupils. Teacher. Pupils. 

1, 2, I 3- II 1, 2, I 3- I 3, 2, I 1- II 3, 2, I 1- | 

1, 3, 1 2- II 1,- 3, 1 2- I 2, 3, 1 1- II 2, 3, | 1-- || 



II. 



/• ^ I" ^ r ^ /■ n 

Teacher. Pujnls. Teacher. Pupils. 

1, 3, I 5- II 1, 3, I 5- I 5, 3, I 1- II 5, 3, I 1- | 

1, 4, I 6- II 1, 4, I 6- I 6, 4, I 1- II 6, 4, | 1- || 



III. 



Teacher. Pupils. 

1, 3, I 5, 5, I 1, 3, 5- II 1, 3, I 5, 5, | 1, 3, | 5- | 
5, 3, 11, 3, I 5, 3, 1- II 5, 3, | 1, 3, ] 5, 3, | 1- 1| 

IV. 

5, 5, 4, 2, 11- 3-1 5, 5, 4, 2, | 1- 0- 1 2, 2, 4, 4, | 3- 5- | 

2, 2, 4, 4, I 3- 0-1 5, 5, 4, 2, | 1- 3- | 5, 5, 4, 2, 1 1- 0- || 

In speaking of the sounds of the scale as represented by figures, 
always use the names of numbers. In singing, always use the 
syllables at first, then La, or any other syllable. 

PITCH IN D, E, OR F. 
I. 

1, 2, 3, 2, I 3, 4, 5- I 5, 4, 3, 4, | 3, 2, 1- || 

II. 

1, 2, 3, 4, I 5, 6, 5- I 6, 5, 4, 3, | 2, 2, 1- || 



!74 



METHODS OF TEACHING. 



3, 2, 1, 2, I 3, 4, 5- I 6, 5, 4, 3, | 4, 3, 2- | 
2, 3, 4, 5, I 6, 6, 5- | 5, 4, 3, 4, | 3, 2, 1- || 

















IV. 
















5, 


4, 


3, 


1, 


1 2, 


3, 


2- 


I 5, 


5, 


3, 


1, 


2, 


2, 


2- 


1 


2, 


3, 


4, 


5, 


1 6, 


6, 


6- 


1 5, 


3, 


1, 


3, 


2, 


2, 


1- 


II 



5, 3, 1, 3, I 2, 2, 2- I 4, 3, 2, 1, | 5, 5, 5- I 
1, 3, 5, 3, I 4, 5, 6- I 5, 5, 3, 1, | 2, 2, 1- || 



PITCH IN" C OR D. 



VI. 



1, 2, I 3, 2, 1 3, 4, 1 5- 



7, I 8, 7, I 6, 7, I 8- II 



VII. 



8, 7, 16, 5, I 4, 3, I 2- I 3, 4, | 5, 4, I 3, 2, | 1- || 

Nos. VI. and VII. may be sung with beating the time, — Two- 
part Measm^e or Double-Time. Also the following : — 



TWO-PART SINGING. 



Divide the class into two equal parts, taking care to have a few 
of the leading voices on each part. 



FIRST /■ 
DIVISION. \ ' ' 



SECOND i -I Q 
DIVISION. C ^i -) 



3, 3, 


0, 0, 


3, 3, 


0, 0, 


4, 3, 


2, 2, 


1- 


0, 0, 


1, 2, 


0, 0, 


4, 3, 


0, 0, 


2, 2, 


1- 















SINGING 


• 










275 














IX. 














FIRST 
DIVISION. 


i^' 


3, 


2, 


2, 


0, 


0, 


0- 


4, 


4, 


3, 3, 


0, 


0, 


0- 


DIVISION. 


to, 


0, 


0, 


0, 


1, 


1, 


1- 


0, 


0, 


0, 0, 




"5 


9 

"5 


2- 




(3, 


4, 


5, 


4, 


0, 


0, 


0, 0, 


0, 


0, 


5,4, 


3, 




-J 


1- 




U, 


0, 


0, 


0, 


3, 


3, 


2_ 


3, 


4, 


0, 0, 


3, 


2, 


1- 














X. 














FIBST 
DIVISION. 


(0, 


0, 


0, 


0, 


5, 


6, 


7, 8, 


0, 


0, 


0, 0, 


4, 


3, 


2, 1, 


RErOND 
DIVISION. 


U 


2, 


3, 


4, 


0, 


0, 


7, 8, 


8, 


7, 


6, 5, 


0, 


0, 


2, 1, 














XI. 














FTBST 
DIVISION. 


(0, 


0, 


0, 


0, 


1, 


3, 


5- 


0, 


0, 


0, 0, 


5, 


3, 


1- 


SECOND 
DIVISION. 


h 


1, 


3, 


3, 


0, 


0, 


0- 


5, 


5, 


3, 3, 


0, 


0, 


1- 














XII. 














FIKST 
DIVISION. 


C8, 


8, 


7, 


7, 


0, 


0, 


0- 


0, 


0, 


0, 0, 


5, 


3, 


2- 


SECOND 
DIVISION. 


U 


0, 


1 0, 


0, 


6, 


6, 


5- 


5, 


5, 


6, 5, 


0, 


0, 


0- 




(0, 


0, 


0, 


0, 


3, 


4, 


5- 


0, 


0, 


0, 0, 


6, 


7, 


8- 




/ 2 


3, 


4, 


4, 


0, 


0, 


0- 


5, 


5, 


6, 5, 


6, 


7, 


8- 














XIII. 














FIBST 
DIVISION. 


C5, 


3, 


6, 


4, 


5, 


3, 6- 


0, 


0, 


0, 0, 


0, 


0, 


0- 


SECOND 
DIVISION. 


U 


0, 


1 0, 


0, 


0, 


0, 0- 


5, 


3, 


6, 4, 


5, 


3, 


6- 




CO, 


3, 


|0, 


0, 


|6, 


4, 


0, 0, 


3, 


6, 


5, 4, 


3, 


2, 


1- 




(0, 


0, 


|5, 


3, 


|o, 


0, 


6, 4, 


3, 


c, 


5,4, 


3, 


9 

-J 


1- 



YI. — Regular Staff Xotation. 

If the pupils have mastered the foregoing lessons, it will be 
very easy to read from tlie regular notation. 



276 



METHODS OF TEACHING. 



8 


c 


Do 


7 


b 


Si 


6 


a 


La 


5 


^(c 


^Sol 


4 


f 


Fa 


3 


e 


Mi 


2 


d 


Re 


1 


c 


Do 









THE PITCH-NAMES OF THE SCALE, IN ADDI- 
TION TO THE SCALE-NAMES AND SYLLABLES. 

The Letters and G-Clef. — 1. The pitch of 
sounds is named by the first seven letters of 
the alphabet : a, h, c, d, e,f, and g. 

2. You see by the diagram, that the pitch 



of 1 



is (/ ; 3 is e ; 4 is /; 5 is ^ ; 6 is a , 



7 is h ; and 8 is c. 

3. You will notice that c is used as the 
pitch for both 1 and 8. AVe distinguish the 
c's by the number of marks over them. The 
pitch of 1 is called " once-marked c " ; and of 
8, " twice-marked c." 

4. Upon the fifth degree of the scale 
you will observe tliis character, which 
is called the ^-Clef or Key, and always 
stands for that letter or pitch. 

We have already sung exercises in three 
kinds of measures : Two-part measures, Three-part measures, and 
Four-part measures. 

The Staff. — Music is written upon five lines and the spaces 
between the lines. The lines and spaces, called the Staff, are 
named from the lowest upwards ; thus : — 



Fifth line. 
Fourth line. 

'I'hinl line. 
Second line. 

First line. 



Fourth space. 
Third space. 
Second space. 
First space. 



Sometimes the spaces below and above the staff, and also short 
added lines, are used ; thus : — 



First added space above. 



i First added line above. 



First added space below. ' 



First added line below. 



The Half-note (f^), two of which would be contained in one 



SINGING. 277 

VII. Notes and Rests. 

In the regular musical notation the different lengths of sounds 
are represented by characters, called Notes. Their shape and 
names are as follows : — 

The Whole-note (^^Zy), which may represent the whole time of a 
quadruple measure in one sound. 

measure. 

The Quarter-note (^), four of which would fill one measure; 
and the Eighth-note (J), eight of which would fill a measure; 
according to the following example : — 

|4 1 1 I l| I I I 1^ U U U <^ '_J 11 

It is usual to take the note as a standard for reckoning the time, 
which corresponds to one beat. In the above example the quarter- 
note is the standard, four of which fill a measure ; the figures at 
the beginning of the example, in the form of a fraction, read, /owr 
quarter-notes in a measure, or their value in other notes. 

I means two quarter-notes in a measure, or their value in other 
notes ; as, 

.2 — ^ ^____^ — — Lp — — — — I ^ M 

I means three quarter-notes in a measure ; thus, 

1-3 



-• — — #- 



II 



l-i I I ill 111 I III 

Bests, or Marls of Silence. — Each note has its corresponding- 
rest. They are of this form : — 

"Whole-rest. Half-rests. Quarter-rests. Eighth-rests. 

All these and other characters should be taken up, and their 
use demonstrated as they are needed. 

From this stage of progress, we would recommend a choice from 
the many excellent text-books of recent publication. 



278 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

The following synopsis indicates briefly the course which may 
be followed : — 

1. A few exercises and songs within the compass of the scale 
in the key of C. 

2. The extension of the scale upwards four sounds, and down- 
wards five sounds, in the same key. 

3. Instruction in time extended to two sounds of equal length 
in each part of the measure, in |, |, and | time ; also the dotted 
quarter (| ) note. 

4. The Chromatic scale, ascending by sharps and descending 
by flats. 

5. The formation of the scale in the keys of G, D, A, E, F, B(?, 
Eb, and Ab. 

6. The introduction of Triplets. 

7. The introduction of | time. 

8. The formation of f tinie, as made up of two measures of 
I time. 

9. Exercises and songs in Natural Harmonies, in all the above 
keys, avoiding difficult forms of Measure and unmusical Rhythms ; 
that is, exercises with five, seven, and eleven measures, these being- 
forbidden by the natural laws of rhythm. 

If the time-names are used, they should not take the place of 
heating time with the hand, in developing the sense of measure. 



MEMORY LESSONS. 279 



MEMORY LESSONS. 

For the purpose of cultivating the memory and at 
the same time of storing the mind with choice thoughts, 
there should be regular practice in memorizing and re- 
citing what has been written by the best authors — 
both in poetry and in prose. To accomplish all that is 
desired to be accom|)lished, it will be necessary to give 
a definite time to the work, and to assign a given amount 
to be done in a given time. From five to ten lines a 
week should be committed to memory and recited by 
every pupil, and one hour a week of school time should 
be given to it. One or more books of good selections 
should be upon the table of every teacher, from which 
ta copy what the pupils are to memorize. When the 
selection is placed upon the blackboard, all difficult 
w^ords should be taught, and the selection be explained 
in such a way as to make it clearly understood b}^ every 
pupil. It should then be memorized, and at the next 
memory-lesson hour it should be recited both in con- 
cert and by individual pupils. In all grades, a simple 
and natural expression of the author's thought is to be 
sought rather than attempts at oratorical display. Each 
week the selections of previous weeks sliould be recited. 
In the higher grades it may be well to have only one- 
fourth of the school recite or dechdm each week, every 
pupil being expected to repeat from twenty to forty 
lines. The first part of the hour should be given to 
the recitation of pieces learned, and the latter part to 
teaching a new piece to the whole school, although 



280 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

only a fourth part of the school are expected to memo- 
rize it. 

In addition to the regular memory lessons, birthdays 
of noted persons may be celebrated by giving sketches 
and anecdotes of their lives, and by reading and reciting 
what they have written. The pupils will greatly enjoy 
such exercises, by means of which a real interest in sci- 
ence, art, politics, and the best literature may be awak- 
ened. It is suggested that four birthday exercises be 
given every year in all grades above the primary, and 
that the parents and friends of the pupils be invited to 
attend them. 



BUSY-WORK. 

Few habits acquired in school are more important 
than a habit of industry. The aim of the teacher should 
be to keep all pupils employed every moment of the 
day, except during times of recreation. But it is not 
enough that they be kept employed without reference 
to what they do, for their natural activity may lead 
them to do that. There should be in their employment 
an element of training, or something which will help to 
develop their faculties. How to provide such employ- 
ment for pupils of all ages is indeed a difficult matter. 
It cannot be done if the natural capabilities of the pupils 
are not considered, — that is to say, if the work given 
is not adapted to the pupils' requirements and needs. 

To keep the older pupils busy will not be very diffi- 
cult. If their regular studies and teaching are what 
they should be, they will be pleasantly as well as profit- 
ably occupied in the preparation of lessons. 



BUSY-WORK. 281 

Younger pupils will need special attention and direc- 
tion. It will not be enough to place in the hands of 
the children toys and pictures, and bid them amuse 
themselves as best they can. They must be directed 
how to use the things which are given them before they 
work with them independently and alone. Do not 
keep the children occupied too long upon any given 
w^ork, but change the occupation as often as once in 
every fifteen minutes. The following kinds of busy- 
work may be suggestive : — 

Every child should be provided with a good slate 
and a sharpened pencil, with which he will be occupied 
half of the time he is in school. At one time he may 
be copying words and sentences which are upon the 
cards or blackboard. At another time he may be do- 
ing number-work or drawing, alternating the slate-work 
with other exercises. Shoe-pegs and splints will afford 
occupation for a few minutes at a time in making de- 
signs in imitation of what is placed before him. With 
the pegs, also, the child may place in rows the number- 
work; as (letting each mark represent a peg), 111 + 11 = 
Mill. After covering the top of his desk wnth such 
work, he may represent upon the slate what he has 
done; as, 3 + 2 = 5. Children can be profitably em- 
ployed with colored pegs, sticks, splints, and papers, in 
making combinations taught in previous color and form 
lessons. Outlines of common objects, such as a ladder, 
fork, rake, or chair, may be drawn upon the blackboard 
for the children to imitate with the pegs or splints. 

The kindergarten games are full of suggestion for 
primary teachers. Paper-folding, weaving, and stick- 
laying are especially useful for busy-work. It is not 



282 ' METHODS OF TEACHING. 

necessary to buy many materials, or to follow closely 
the order given in the kindergarten. Wooden tooth- 
picks, splints, and different kinds of paper will con- 
stitute much of the needed material for these games. 
Pictures may be pasted upon cardboard which can be 
cut into pieces for the younger chiklren to put together. 
The same may also be done with designs upon card- 
board. 

Forms of animals and other objects can be made of 
cardboard or pasteboard and given to the children for 
tracing. After the form is traced, the children should 
be encouraged to draw lines representing the various 
parts. 

Second and third year pupils can be kept busy in 
language-work, copying from the reader, making sen- 
tences with given words, or making statements or stories 
from pictures placed before them. 

Letters upon paper or cardboard for making words, 
and words for making sentences, will be found useful in 
keeping children busy. The letters and words can be 
bought in boxes, or they can be cut out and collected 
by the pupils and teacher. The older children of the 
primary and ungraded schools may be called upon at 
times to collect and distribute the cards, splints, etc., 
and they may sometimes assist the little ones in their 
slate-work. 

It is not expected that the very youngest children 
will be in school during the whole of two sessions. 
They should be dismissed when the session is half 
through, or if the distance to their homes is too great 
for them to go alone, they should be allowed to go to 
the playground or anteroom to play. 



PHYSICAL EXERCISE. 28i 



PHYSICAL EXERCISE. 



Play in the open air is undoubtedly the best exercise 
for children; but when large numbers of children av^. 
brought together on the playground, there are certain 
dangers which can only be avoided by the teacher's 
presence. To see that all are exercising, and that the 
exercise is not excessive, — not to mention still weightier 
reasons, — it is necessary for the teacher to oversee the 
games, and perhaps to participate in them. Whenever 
this cannot be done, or whenever the weather is cold or 
stormy, the recess should be omitted, and in its place 
there should be marching or other gymnastic exercises. 
It is not well to have the physical exercises immedi- 
ately after recess or at the commencement of a session ; 
neither should they be given just before dismissal. 
They should be given in the middle of a session when 
there is no recess ; or if there is a recess, about three- 
quarters of an hour before the}^ leave the room. 

The exercise will be more enjoyable and the interest 
will be better maintained by having the movements 
made to music. If nothing better can be provided, a 
boy may mark the time with clappers, or the teacher 
may count. In the primary and kindergarten singing- 
books there can be found pretty motion songs, in Avhich 
the children are led to combine motions with singing. 

If the physical exercises are given merely as a diver- 
sion, the motions may be gently given ; but if the exer- 
cises are meant to quicken the circulation and strengthen 
the muscles, the motions should be made with great 
rapidity and exactness. If, for example, the arm is to 



284 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

be raised to a horizontal position in front, much greater 
strength is required to raise it directly in front in a 
straight line very rapidly, and to stop it as soon as it 
has reached a horizontal position, than to raise it slowly 
and carelessly. 

The following exercises have been used in some 
schools, and may be of assistance to teachers : — 

I. Breathing Exercise. 

(Shoulders thrown had-, hands on hips.) 

1. Draw in the breath slowly, and expel it slowly (indicated by 
motion of the teacher's hand). 

2. Draw in the breath slowly, and expel it qnickly. 

3. Draw in the breath qnickly, and expel it slowly. 

4. Draw in the breath quickly, and expel it quickly. 

5. Repeat each exercise, holding the breath a few seconds. 

II. Breathing Exercise. 
{Good exercise for straightening the body.) 

1. Stand with arms folded behind, and one foot eight inches in 
front of the other. 

2. Draw the head back, and tip it as far down behind as you can. 

3. Hold the chin up high. 

4. Rest there a moment, and then stand up straight again. 
Repeat the exercise six times. 

Breathe deep, full breaths all the time, — slowly, and as large 
breaths as you can. 

III. To enlarge the Chest. 

1. Raise the chin as high up as you can, until your eyes look 
up at the ceiling right over your head. 

2. Hold your chin this way a moment. 

3. Take two or three full inspirations slowly. Repeat three times. 

4. Put your hands upon your hips, fingers in front. 

5. Draw your chin up ; throw your head back. 



PHYSICAL EXEKCISE. 285 

6. Tcake one good, full inspiration, very slowly, and resume the 
erect position. 

7. Repeat this exercise three times. 

Whatever lifts the chin and throws the shoulders back, enlarges 
the chest and makes the lungs stronger. 

lY. JVIOVEMEXTS FOR YoUNG CHILDREN. 

I. Position. — Sit erect ; eyes steadily in front ; shoulders thrown 
back ; arms hanging by the side ; feet in front ; heels four inches 
apart; toes turning out, forming with each other an angle of 
twenty-five degrees. 

2. Arms folded. 

3. Hands clasped and resting on edge of desk. 

4. Right hand thrown horizontally in front. 

5. Left hand same as right in Xo. 4. 

6. Strike hands together in front five times. 

7. Right hand on head. 

8. Both hands on head. 

9. Strike hands together five times over head. 
10. Fingers resting on top of shoulders. 

II. Strike hands together five times in front. 

12. Hands on top of head. 

13. Strike hands together five times over head. 

14. Hands tw^irling over head. 

15. Hands brought suddenly to desk with noise. 

16. Arms folded. 

17. Fingers resting on top of shoulders. 

18. Hands on top of head. 

19. Strike hands together five times over head. 

20. Fingers twirling rapidly over head. 

21. Hands brought to desk, softly tapping with tips of fingers, 
in imitation of rain. 

[Remarks. — The force of the storm maybe graduated by signals 
from the teacher. The pupils may at the same time whistle in 
imitation of wind. Two or three of the pupils may be designated 
to strike heavily on their desks with the fists, at intervals, imitating 
thunder.] 

22. Fold arms, sitting perfectly still. 



286 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

V. Free Gymnastics. — Sitting. 

(The counting is in measures from one to eight, each measure 
taken four times.) 

A. 

1. Hands on hips, fingers front. 

2. Hands on shoulders (arms at side). 

3. Hands on head. 

4. Clap hands above head. 

5. Hands on head. 

6. Hands on shoulders (like 2). 

7. Hands on hips (like 1). 

8. Arms folded in front. 
(Take four times.) 

B. 

(Two movements only.) 

1. Hands on hips. 

2. Clap hands in front. 

Repeat to complete thirty-two counts. 

C. 

1. Strike left shoulder lightly with right hand. 

2. Return right hand to right hip. 

3. Strike right shoulder wdth left liand. 

4. Return left hand to left hijD. 
Repeat to complete thirty-two counts. 

D. 

Position. — Hands on hips, fingers front. 

1. Carry right hand to right slioulder (arm at side). 

2. Carry left hand to left shoulder. 

3. Return right hand to position. 

4. Return left hand to position. 
Repeat to complete thirty-two counts. 

E. 

1. Right hand on right shoulder. 

2. Right hand up above head (arm straight). 

3. Left hand on left shoulder. 



PHYSICAL EXERCISE. 287 

4. Left hand up above head (arm straight) . * 

5. Snap fingers of both hands. 

6. Like 5. 

7. Like 5. 

8. Hands on hips. 

Repeat to complete thirty-two counts. 

YL Free Gymnastics. — Standixg. 

Position. — Heels together ; toes out, so that the feet may form a 
right angle ; shoulders and hips drawn back ; hands naturally at 
sides, unless otherwise specified ; hands firmly clenched ; all thrusts 
are from the chest, unless otherwise specified. 

Time. — Each number extends through what may be called one 
strain of 4 — 4 music, or eight accented and eight unaccented beats. 
Time may be kept also by counting the numerals from one to eight 
for the heavy beats, and for the light beats, saying "and." 

Hand Movements. — 1. Thrust R. H. down from chest twice ; L. 
twice ; alternate twice ; sinmltaneous twice. 

2. Repeat No. 1, thrusting out at side. 

3. Repeat No. 1, thrusting up. 

4. Repeat Xo. 1, thrusting in front. 

5. R. H. down once ; L. once ; drum-beat (R. a little in advance 
of L.) once ; simultaneous once ; same out at sides. 

G. Repeat Xo. 5, thrusting up and in front. 

7. R. H. down once; L. once; clap hands; same out at sides. 

8. Repeat No. 7, thrusting up and in front. 

Foot Movements. — 9. Hands on hips ; divide a circle about the 
body, w^ith a radius of from two to three feet, into eight equal 
parts, by stepping forward, diagonal forward, at .side, diagonal 
back, etc., with R. F. keeping L. knee straight and the feet at 
right angles, except last two steps, bending R. knee each step. 

10. Repeat No. 9 with L. F. 

11. Same movement, alternating R. and L. half around. 
. 12. Complete the movement of No. 11. 

13. Cliarge diagonal forward with R. F., advancing with three 
steps, bending R. knee, L. straight; same on the L. side; same 
diagonal back on R. side ; same L. 

14. Repeat No. 13. 



288 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

Bod u Movements. — 15. Hands on hips; twist upper body half 
round to K., then to L., alternately, stopping in front on unac- 
cented beats. 

16. Bend upper body to R. and L. 

17. Bend forward and back. 

18. Bend body to R., back, L., front; then reverse, bending to 
L., back, R., front ; repeat, becoming erect only on last beat. 

Head Movements. — 19. Same as 15, except that the head alone 
is moved. 

20. Same as 16, except that tlie head alone is moved. 

21. Same as 17, except that the head alone is moved. 

22. Same as 18, except that the head alone is moved. 
Miscellaneous Movements. — 23. Arms extended in front, thumbs 

up, raise hands about a foot, and bring forcibly to shoulders. 

21. Arms same as No. 20; raise R. 11. to perpendicular over 
headtwdce; L. twice; alternate twice ; and simultaneous twice. 

25. Thrust hands down, out at sides, up, in front, twisting the 
arms at each thrust ; repeat. 

26. Repeat No. 25. 

27. Thrust hands to floor, not bending knees ; then over head, 
rising on toes, opening hands at each thrust. * 

28. Hands at sides open ; swing them over head, clapping them, 
at same time stepping 11. F. to L., and L. F. to R., alternately. 

29. Stamp L. F. ; then R. ; then charge diagonal forward with 
R. ; bend and straighten R. knee, at same time throwing arms back 
from horizontal in front. 

30. Repeat No. 29 on L. side. 

* YII. Beax-Bag Exercises. 

These exercises are performed by couples, partners standing 
from six to ten feet apart, facing each other, unless otherwise 
specified. 

The bag should be made of strong cloth, strongly sewed, and 
should be from eight to twelve inches square inside of seam; 
should be about two- thirds filled with beans, or other grain, 
and should be entirely free from dust. 

1. Throw from chest with both hands. 

2. Throw from chest with R. H. 



PHYSICAL EXERCISE. 289 

3. Throw from chest with L, H. 

4. Bag behind the head, throw over the head with both hands. 

5. Same with R. II. 

6. Same witli L. H. 

7. Partners standing R. side toward R., throw with both hands. 

8. Same with R. H. 

9. Same with L. H. 

10. L. to L., throw with both hands. 

11. Same with R. H. 

12. Same with L. H. 

13. Bag behind the back, throw over head with both hands. 
11. Same with R. H. 

15. Same with L. H. 

16. Throw with R. H. behind the back, grasping R. elbow. 

17. Same, throwing with L. 

18. Back to back, thi'ow over head with both hands, catching in 
same position. 

19. Throw bag from R. elbow; catch with both hands. 

20. Same from L. elbow. 

21. Throw bag with feet; catch with both hands. 

22. Two bags ; throw at same time with R. ; catch with L. 

23. Same, except throwing with L. and catching with R. 

24. Throw with both hands at the same time ; catch with both. 

25. Three bags; throw with R., catch with L. 

26. Three bags ; throw with L., catch with R. 



Paet hi 

ORGANIZATION, MORAL TRAINING, 
AND SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 

ORGANIZATION. 

School Building-s. — Locality. — The -first considera- 
tion in fixing the locality of a schoolhouse is healthful- 
ness. The ground upon which it is placed should be 
high, and the soil sandy, so as to allow good drainage. 
It should be located with reference to the convenience 
of the pupils attending the school, and so retired that 
the school will not be disturbed by noises from without. 

Privies. — Privies should, if possible, be separated 
from the schoolhouse, and have a separate apartment 
and approach for each sex. Dry earth should be placed 
daily in the vaults, which should be frequently cleaned 
out. Great care should be taken in the construction of 
water-closets located in the schoolhouse, and constant 
attention should be given to the matter of cleansing and 
disinfecting. The closets should be placed as far from 
the furnace as possible, and should be thoroughly ven- 
tilated by means of pipes and windows. 

Size of School-rooms. — The size of schoolrooms 



SCHOOL BUILDINGS. 291 

should depend upon the present and prospective num- 
ber of pupils. There should be sufficient room for the 
setits and desks of pupils, recitation-seats, platform 
and desk of teacher, and apparatus. In determining 
the size of rooms reference should be had also to proper 
ventilation and heating, and to ease of speaking. 

A school of thirty or forty pupils can be well ac- 
commodated in a room twentj'-six feet by thirty, the 
teacher's desk being placed at the end of the room. If 
the number of pupils is fifty, or is likely to be fifty, the 
size of the room should be twenty-eight or thirty feet 
by thirty-six. For the sake of good order the gathering 
of a large number of pupils into one room should be 
avoided so far as possible. At least should the number 
of recitation-rooms belonging to a school be limited to 
one, located, if possible, on the same floor as the large 
room. 

Lighting. — Windows should be placed if possible at 
the left and behind the desks of pupils. The window 
surface of a room should be from one-eighth to one-fifth 
of its floor surface. The amount of light admitted 
may be regulated by curtains or inside blinds. Win- 
dows should not be in front of pupils as they sit in 
their seats. 

Ventilation and Heating. — Two things are to be ac- 
complished in ventilation : first, to get rid of the bad 
air; and secondly, to introduce fresh air. To accom- 
plish the first-named object there should be one large 
or, what is better, two small ducts connecting the 
room with the outer air. These ducts should extend 
from floor to ceiling, and should have openings in the 
upper and lower parts. To make strong and constant 



292 ORGANIZATION. 

the out-going current, the ducts should be heated in 
some way. In buildings heated by steam, the ducts 
can be heated by means of pipes running through thern. 
In other buildings the ducts can be constructed next 
to the chimney or smoke-stack, or they can be warmed 
by lamjDS or a kerosene stove. One of the best means 
of carrying away impurities is the open fireplace found 
in a few schoolrooms. At a comparatively slight ex- 
pense this excellent means of ventilation can be pro- 
vided in most of our country schoolhouses. 

Having provided means of getting rid of the impure 
air, the next thing is to introduce pure air to take its 
place. To get a proper supply of fresh air, it is gener- 
ally found necessary to open the windows, thereby 
exposing the pupils to draughts of cold air. This may 
be obviated in some degree by placing a strip of board 
five or six inches wide under the lower window-sash, so 
as to allow a current of air to pass upwards between 
the upper and lower sash. But it is neither economical 
nor healthful to bring into circulation air which is not 
first warmed. In rooms heated by stoves it is easy and 
entirely practicable to introduce a supply of warm fresh 
air. A covering may be made to encase the stove so as 
to form a hot-air chamber communicating with the outer 
air by a cold-air box. This is done in some places, and 
found to be of great service in ventilation. 

The hot-air furnace is supposed to furnish a constant 
supply of warm fresh air. Great care, however, must 
be taken that poisonous gases do not enter the room. 
Constant attention must be given to the ventilation of 
the basement, to the cold-air boxes, to evaporation, and 
to the draughts of the furnace. Steam-heating by 



SCHOOL BUILDI^'GS. 293 

direct radiation is not uncommon, even in new and 
costly buildings, but it is little better than heating by 
stoves, so far as ventilation is concerned. There may 
be a saving of money, but not of health, by heating a 
building in this way. Some of the dangers may be 
avoided by constructing hot-air chambers about the 
radiators, to which fresh air can be introduced from 
without through cold-air boxes. Steam-heating by in- 
direct radiation furnishes a constant supply of warm 
pure air, and is therefore the best method of heating 
schoolrooms. With properly arranged ducts fur tak- 
ing away the impure air, there need be little difficulty 
in securing good ventilation in rooms heated in this way. 

If it is found necessary to heat the schoolroom by 
stove, two stoves will be found better than one. With 
two stoves a more equable temperature may be main- 
tained than with one, and there Avill be less danger from 
an overlieated surface, which burns the surrounding air. 
A dish of water should be placed upon the stoves for 
evaporation. 

The temperature of the room should be kept as near 
as possible at 68° Fahrenheit. 

Fum'tture and Furnishings. — Single desks for the 
pupils should be placed in rows two feet apart. The 
seats and desks should be constructed with special ref- 
erence to the health and convenience of pupils. They 
should be of such a height and be placed at such a dis- 
tance from the desk as to enable the pupils to take a 
comfortable position, with the feet upon the floor. The 
desks should be of sufficient size to allow the books to 
be placed inside, and to allow the pupils to take a good 
position in writing. 



294 ORGANIZATION. . 

Ink-wells with covers should be placed in all desks 
designed for pupils wdio write with pen and ink. 

Besides desks and seats for pupils, the following 
articles are necessary in every schoolroom: desk for 
teacher, chairs for teacher and visitors, crayons, erasers, 
pointers, clock, bell, thermometer, broom, ink-filler, 
dustpan, dusters, closet or bookcase, and table for 
number-work. 

In addition to the above-named articles many school- 
rooms have the following: waste-basket, sponge-pail, 
wall-ornaments, toilet appliances, moulding-table, and 
piano or organ. 

Blackboards. — Blackboards of natural slate or some 
well-tried artificial preparation should be placed entirely 
around the room, wherever spaces are left between 
windows and doors. They should be at least four feet 
in width and sufficiently near the floor to enable the 
pu[)ils to reach them easily. If the liquid slate is used, 
care should be taken to have the foundation firm and 
smooth. 

Apparatus. — The kind and amount of apparatus 
used in teaching indicate in no small degree the char- 
acter of the work done. Therefore, the question so often 
asked. What apparatus is needed in the schoolroom? 
becomes a serious one. It is not always desirable to pur- 
chase apparatus which is the most costly. Indeed, much 
of the most valuable apparatus used maybe made or gath- 
ered by the teachers and pupils — especially that which 
is needed in the Observation Lessons. Charts of any 
kind can be made of thick Manilla paper, marked with 
artist's crayon, or with a rubber pen. The following 
list comprises the minimmn amount which should be 



APPARATUS AND EEFEREXCE-BOOKS. 295 

found in every schoolroom, or at least, which should 
be accessible to every teacher. Blocks, splints, and 
shoe-pegs for number and "busy-work"; measures 
(dry, liquid, linear, metric) ; balance, toy money, globe, 
wall maps ; charts for number, reading, writing, anatomy, 
and music ; numeral frame, drawing models and com- 
passes, toys and other objects for reading ; forms for 
mensuration ; pictures for language, geography, his- 
tory, etc. ; cardboard for number, language, etc. ; colored 
worsted, colored cardboard for form and color ; plants, 
minerals, mounted insects; appliances for busy-work;^ 
pen-holders and pens, slates and pencils, sponges or 
slate-cloths, lead-pencils, paper (white and brown), 
blank-books, ruler; coarse files for sharpening pencils 
when pencil-sharpeners are not provided. 

It will be seen that the above list does not comprise 
some of the means of teaching physiology and other 
observation lessons, which may be gathered from day to 
day, such as flowers, leaves, and plants, which are of 
temporary use only, and the parts of animals obtained 
from the butcher's. Neither does the list include the 
little contrivances used for illustrating mensuration of 
boxes, walls, etc. 

Reference-Books. — In addition to the text-books 
regularly used there should be within easy access books 
of all kinds for both teachers and pu^Dils. For the 
higher grades an encyclopsedia, a gazetteer, a large dic- 
tionary, and several small dictionaries will be found 
useful in connection with the geography, history, and 
reading lessons. Histories, biographies, illustrated 
books of travel, and other supplementary reading-books 

1 See page 280. 



296 ORGANIZATION. 

should be used for silent and sight reading daily; such 
reading will greatly increase the interest of the pupils 
in their regular studies. 

The following list contains-the names of a few books 
which will be found useful for reference. Among the 
books named, those marked with a star should be used 
by the teachers exclusively. Titles printed in italics 
name books wdiich are specially adapted to primary 
grades ; all others are adapted to the higher or to all 
grades. 

ARITHMETIC. 

Arithmetical Problems. Fish. L, B., T., & Co. 

Arithmetic for Primary Grades. Fisher. N. E. Pub. Co. 

Book-Keeping for Grammar Schools. Meserveij. T., B., & Co. 

Bradbury-Eaton Series. Thompson, Brown, & Co. 

Common School Book-Keeping. Bryant ^" Stratton. I., B., T., & Co. 

Crittenden Commercial. Eldredge & Co. 

Exercises in Arithmetic. Wentworth §' Hill. Ginn & Co. 

Franklin Series. Wm. Ware & Co. 

First Steps in Number. Wentworth Sf Heed. Ginn & Co. 

Grammar School Arithmetic. Wentworth. Ginn & Co. 

* Grant's Arithmetic for Young Children. Ed. by Small. L. & S. 

Greenleaf (New Series). Leach, Shewell, & Sanborn. 

Hagar's Series. Cowperthwait & Co. 

Harper's Graded Arithmetics. Harper & Bros. 

Intellectual Arithmetic. Colhurn. Houghton, Mifflin, & Co, 

MacVicar Series. Taintor Bros., Merrill, & Co. 

Numbers Applied. Fdckoff. D. Appleton & Co. 

Numbers Illustrated. D. Appleton & Co. 

Number Lessons for Supplementary Work. L., S., & S. 

Walton's Arithmetical Tables. Wm. Ware & Co. 

White's Graded School Series. Wilson, Hinkle, & Co. 

GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVELS. 

Arctic Explorations. Kane. 

Aunt Martha's Corner Cupboard. Kirby. 



REFERENCE-BOOKS. 297 

Common School and Primary Geographies. Appleton's, GuyoCs, 

Harper's, Maury's, McJVally's, Our World, Swinton's. 
Compendium of Geography and Travels ; 6 vols., Illus. Stanford. 
Each and All. Andrews. Lee & Shepard. 
Earth and ]\Ian. Guyot. 
*Geography for Young Children. Grant. 
Geographical Header. C. Scribner's Sons. 
Geographical Header Series. G. Philip & Son. 
Geographical Reader. J.ohonnot. 

Little Lucy's Wonderful Globe. Yonge. MacMillan & Co. 
Man and Xature. March. 

* Methods of Teaching Geography. Crocker. Bos. Sch. Sup. Co. 

* Physical Geographies. Geike's, GuyoCs, Johnstons, Mrs. Somer- 

ville's, Maury's. 

* Physiography. Huxley. 

Pronouncing Gazetteer of the World. Lippincott & Co. 
Seven Little Sisters. Andrews. Lee & Sliepard. 
Statesman's Year-Book. 

World at Home. Six nos. T. Xelson & Sons. 
World by the Fireside. Kirby. T. Nelson & Sons. 

HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 

Abbott's Series of BiograjDhies. Harper & Bros. 

American Biography. Spai'ks. 

American Statesmen Series. Houghton, Mifflin, & Co. 

Aunt Charlotte's Stories of American History. D. Appleton & Co. 

Bodley Books. 

Boys of '76. Coffin. Harper & Bros. 

Boys of '61. Coffin. Harper & Bros. 

Child's History of England. Dickens. 

Child's History of England. Yonge. 

Discoveries and Inventions of the 19th Centmy. Routledge. H. & B. 

First History of Greece. Sewell. D. Appleton & Co. 

First History of Rome. Sewell. D. Appleton & Co. 

History of American Politics. Johnston. Holt & Co. 

History of America. Bryant. 

History of the United States. Scudder. J. H. Butler & Co. 



298 ORGANIZATION. 

History of the United States. Eliot. 

Plistory of Our Country. Richardson. Houghton, Mifflin, & Co. 

North American Indians. Catlin. 

Old Times in the Colonies. Coffin. Harper & Bros. 

* Methods of Teaching and Studying History. Ed. by Hall. D. 

C. Heath & Co. 
Pictorial History of the Revolution. Lossing. 
Story of Our Country. Monroe. Lee & Shepard. 
Ten Boys who lived on the Road from Long Ago to Now. L. & S. 
Young Folks' Heroes of History. Towle. Lee & Shepard. 
Young Folks' History of America. Butterworth. Estes & Lauriat. 
Young Folks' History of the United States. Higginson. L. & S. 



INFORMATION LESSONS. 

Child's Book of Nature. Three parts. Hooker. 

Civil Government. Martin. Barnes & Co. 

Childhood of the World. Clodd. 

Commercial Law. Clark. Clark, Maynard, & Co. 

Government Class-Book. Young. Clark, Maynard, & Co. 

Homes without Hands. Wood. 

Household Economy. Ivison, Blakeraan, Taylor, & Co. 

How we are Governed. Daives. Int. Pub. Co. 

Information Cards. Cambridge Series. Lee & Shepard. 

Lessons on Manners. Wig gin. Lee & Shepard. 

Lessons on Practical Subjects. Little, Brown, & Co. 

Little Folks in Feathers and Fur. Miller. Dutton & Co. 

Little People of Asia. Miller. 

Manual of Commerce. Browne. 

Natural History Series of Readers. D. Appleton & Co. 

Natural History Series of Readers. Wood. Bos. Sch. Sup. Co. 

Natural History Stories. Prang. 

Our Government. Macy. Ginn & Co. 

Politics for Young Americans. Nordhoff. Harper & Co. 

Popular Science Reader. MonteitJi. Barnes & Co. 

Quizzism and its Key. Soutlnvick. 

Silver Winus and Golden Scales. Cassell. 



EEFEREXCE-BOOKS. 299 

Talks with my Boys. Moicry. 

The Citizen and Neighbor. Dole. 

Young Folks' Catechism of Common Things. ChampUn. H. & Co. 

LAXGUAGE. 

INCLUDING WRITING, SPELLING, COMPOSITION, AND GRAMMAR. 

Child's Book of Language. SticTcney. D. Appleton & Co. 

Elementary Lessons in English. Parts I. and II. Knox. Ginn & Co. 

Essentials of English Grammar. Whitney. Ginn & Co. 

Graded Instruction in English. Bright. D. Appleton & Co. 

Graded Spelling Book. Harrington. Harper & Bros. 

♦Grammar Land. Neshitt. Holt & Co. 

Grammar for Common Schools. Tweed. Lee & Shepard. 

Handbook of Punctuation. Bigelow. Lee & Shepard. 

How to Talk. Powell. Cowperthwait & Co. 

How to Write. Powell. Cowperthwait & Co. 

*How to AYrite Clearly. Abbott. Roberts Bros. 

New Word Analysis. Swinton. L, B., T., & Co. 

School Composition. Swi7iton. Harper & Bros. 

Selected Words for Spelling and Language Lessons. A. Lovell & Co. 

Some Topics in English Grammar. Hinds. 

*Study of AVords. French. 

Thought and Expression. Greene. Cowperthwait & Co. 

♦Treatise on Punctuation. Wilson. Potter, Ainsworth, & Co. 

Word Lessons. Reed. Clark & jMaynard. 

MEMORY LESSONS. 

Ballads and Lyrics. Sel. by Lodge. Houghton, Mifflin, & Co. 

Five-Minute Declamations. Ar. by Fobes. Lee & Shej^ard. 

Five-Minute Recitations. Ar. by Fobes. Lee & Shepard. 

Golden Treasury for Children. Palgrave. 

Graded Selections. Ed. by Peaslee. Van Antwerp, Bragg, & Co. 

Little Gems of Literature. Potter, Ainsworth, & Co. 

Memory Gems, in prose and verse. Ed. by Lambert. Ginn & Co. 

Memory Gems. 3 vols. Northend. Lee & Shepard. 

One Hundred Choice Selections. Several vols. P. Garrett & Co. 

Pieces to Speak. Ballard. D. Appleton & Co. 



300 ORGANIZATION. 

Poetry for Children. EUot. Houghton, Mifflin, & Co. 

Select Poetry for School and Home. Ed. by Campbell. L. & S. 

Simple Poems and Easy Rhymes. Ed. by Camphell. L. & S. 

OBSEPvVATIOX LESSOXS. 

Astronomy by Observation. Bower. D. Appleton & Co. 

Ants, Bees, and Wasps. Lubbock. 

Botany for Beginners. Masters. 

Boys and Girls in Biology. Stevenson. D. Appleton & Co. 

Butterflies. Scudder. 

Easy Experiments in Physical Science. Cooley. Scrib., Arm., & Co. 

Elementary Lessons in Botany. Oliver. 

*Exercises for the Improvement of the Senses. Grant. L. & S. 

Elements of Physics. Gage. Ginn & Co. 

Fairy Land of Science. Buckley. D. Appleton & Co. 

First Book of Botany. Youmans. D. Appleton & Co. 

First Book in Geology. Slialer. 

First Book of Zoology. Alorse. D. Appleton & Co. 

First Principles of Natural Philosophy. Sheldon & Co. 

Geological Excursions. Winchell. Griggs & Co. 

Geological Story briefly Told. Dana. 

*Guides for Science Teaching. D. C. Heath & Co. 

Guide to the Study of Bisects. Packard. 

How Plants Behave. Gray. Ivison & Co. 

How Plants Grow. Gray. Ivison & Co. 

How to find the Stars. Clarke. Lockwood, Brooks, & Co. 

Insects, How to Catch, etc., for Cabinet. ]\Tant.on. L. & S. 

^Improvement of the Senses. Grant. F^d.hy Small. Lee & Shepard. 

Insects Injurious to Vegetation. Harris. 

'^Lessons on Color, ivith Color and Form Cards. Interstate Pub. Co. 

Life and her Children. Buckley. D. Appleton & Co. 

*Manual of Mineralogy. Dana. Wiley & Sons. 

Natural History of Animals. Tenny. Scribners. 

Natural Philosophy. Cooley. Scribners. 

Object Lessons of Botany. Wood. 

Physics. Hotze. Central Publishing Co. 

* Primary Object Lessons. Calkins. Harpers. 



REFERENCE-BOOKS. 301 

Science Primers. D. Appleton & C6. 

Short Course in Astronomy. Kiddle. Ivison & Co. 

Tenants of an Old Orchard. McCook. 

The Earth in Space. D. C. Heath & Co. 

Winners in Life's Race. BucUey. D. Appleton & Co. 

Yomig Folks' Astronomy. ChampUn. H. Holt & Co. 

Zoology. Colton. D. C. Heath & Co. 

Zoology. Packard. 

PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 

BlaisdelVs (Lee & Shepard) ; Brand's (Leach, Shewell, & Sanborn) ; 

Dalton's (Harper & Bros.) ; Hooker's (Sheldon) ; Diinglison's 

(Porter & Coates) ; Hutchison's (Clark, Maynard, & Co.) ; 

Huxley's (:Mac]Millan & Co.) ; Martin's (Holt & Co.) ; Smith's 

(Ivison, Blakeman, Taylor, & Co.). 
*Fomidation of Death. Gustafson. D. C. Heath & Co. 
Health Xotes for Students. Wilder. Putnam & Sons. 
History of a ]Mouthful of Bread. Mace. 
How to get Strong. Blaikie. 

* School Hygiene. Ginn & Co. 

Sound Bodies for Boys and Girls. Blaikie. 
Servants of the Stomach. Mace'. 

* Skeleton Lessons in Physiology and Hygiene. Guernsey. Inter- 

state Publishing Co. 
Temperance Physiology. A. S. Barnes & Co. 
The Tobacco Problem. Lander. Cupples, Upham, & Co. 

SUPPLEMENTARY READING. 

[Titles of other books suitable for sight-reading will be found under 
" Geography and Travels," "History and Biography," and " Inlormatioii 

Lessons."] 

Age of Fable. Buljinch. 

A. B. C. Reader. For first half-year. Lowell & Co. 

Appleton's Series of Readers. D. Appleton & Co.- 

Barnes's New National Readers. 

Book of Fables. Ed . by Scudder. Houghton, Mifflin, & Co. 

Butler's Series of Readers. 



302 ORGANIZATION. 

Classics for Children. Several books for all grades. Ginn & Co. 

Edward's Analytical Readers. T., B., M., & Co. 

Franklin New Readers. Wm. Ware & Co. 

From Blackboard to Books. Calkins. I., B., T., & Co. 

Grandfather's Chair. Hawthorne. 

Harpers' New Readers. Harper & Bros. 

McGuffy's Eclectic Readers. Van Antwerp, Bragg, & Co. 

Modern Classics. 33 vols. Houghton, Mifflin, & Co. 

Monroe's New Readers. Cowperthwait & Co. 

Sheldon's Readers. Sheldon & Co. 

Supplementary Reading. Ed. by Tweed. Lee & Shepard. 

Supplementary Reading. Parker ^ Marvel. L., S., & S. 

Swinton's Series of Readers. L, B., T., & Co. 

Tales from Shakespeare. Lamb. 

Tanglewood Tales. HatvtJiorne, 

Wonder Book. Hawtliorne. 

GENERAL AND MISCELLANEOUS. 

Book of Days. Chambers. 

Calisthenic Songs. Parsons. Ivison, Blakeman, Taylor, & Co. 

Cyclopaedias. Appleton's (16 vols.); Chambers's (10 vols, or 5 

vols.) ; Johnson's (8 vols, or 2 vols.). 
Cyclopaedia of English Literature. Chambers. 
Dictionaries. Webster's and Worcester's. 
English Synonyms. Soule. Little, Brown, & Co. 
First Weeks in School. Stickney ^ Peabody. Ginn & Co. 
First and Second Lessons in Geometry. Hill. 
Model and Object Drawing. Baker. L, B., T., & Co. 
National Music Course. Mason. Ginn & Co. 
Normal Music Course. Tufts ^ Holt. Wilson, Winkle, & Co. 

* Power and Authority of School Officers. 

Industrial Education in Public Schools. Straight. Ginn & Co. 
Inventional Geometry. Spencer. D. Appleton & Co. 
Learning to Draw. Le Due. Putnam & Co. 

* Manuals and Teachers' Guides for Drawing-Books. 
Political Economy. Walker. 

School Amusements. Root. 



PROFESSIONAL BOOKS. 303 

School Studies in Words. Gilbert. Leach, Shewell, & Sanborn. 
Statutes of the State. 

Theory and Design. Baker. Ivison, Blakeman, Taylor, & Co. 
Thi-ee Thousand Words. Handbook of Pronunciation. L. & S. 



professio:n^al books for teachers. 

Application of Psychology to Teaching. Hailmann. Small. 

Art of School Management. Baldwin. D. Appleton & Co. 

Common School Education, Currie, 

Education. Herbert Spencer. 

Educational Reformers. Quick. 

Form Discipline. Sedgwick. 

History of Education. Painter. D. Appleton & Co. 

History of Pedagogy. Compayre. D. C. Heath & Co. 

Infant School Education. Currie. 

John Amos Comenius. Laurie. 

Lectures on Teaching. Fitch. 

Lectures on Science and Art of Teaching. Payne. 

Life and Work of Pestalozzi. Kriisi. Wilson, Hinkle, & Co. 

INIanuals for Teachers. Five vols. Eldridge Bros. 

Methods of Instruction. Wickersham. 

On Teaching. Ccddenvood. 

Outline Study of JNIan. Hopkins. 

Philosophy of Education. Tate. 

Principles and Practice of Teaching. Johonnot. D. C. Heath & Co. 

Record of a School. Peabody. 

Reminiscences of Frobel. Von Buloiv. Lee & Shepard. 

School at Hofwyl. 

School Management. Landon. 

Some Thoughts on Education. Locke. 

Teachers' Handbook of Psychology. Sully. 

The Kindergarten and the School. Milton Bradley & Co. 

Theory and Practice of Teaching. Page. 

True Order of Studies. Hill 



304 OKGANIZATION. 

PROFESSIONAL PERIODICALS FOR TEACHERS. 

American Journal of Education. St. Louis, Mo. 

American Teacher. Monthly. Boston, Mass. 

Carolina Teacher. Monthly. Columbia, 8. C. 

Colorado School Journal. Denver, Col. 

Central School Journal. Monthly. Keokuk, Iowa. 

Education. Monthly. Boston, Mass. 

Educational Courant. Monthly. Louisville, Ky. 

Educational Journal. Monthly. Richmond, Va. 

EducationaJl Monthly. Toronto, Canada. 

Educational Weekly. Toronto, Canada. 

IlHnois School Journal. Bloomington, 111. 

Indiana School Journal. Monthly. Indianapolis, Ind. 

Intelligence. Monthly. Chicago, 111. 

Journal of Education. Monthly. Madison, Wis. 

National Normal Exponent. Monthly. Cincinnati, O. 

New England Journal of Education. Weekly. Boston, Mass. 

New Orleans School Journal. New Orleans, La. 

Normal Monthly. Iowa. 

Nortli Carolina School Journal. Raleigh, N. C. 

Ohio Educational Monthly. Akron, O. 

Our Country and Village Schools. Monthly. Illinois. 

Popular Educator. Monthly. Boston, Mass. 

School Bulletin. Monthly. Syracuse, N. Y. 

School Education. Monthly. Minnesota. 

School Herald. Chicago, 111. 

School Journal. Weekly. New York. 

School Journal. Monthly. California. 

School Journal. Monthly. Lancaster, Pa. 

School Journal. Semi-monthly. Missouri. 

School ]\Iode]'ator. Semi-monthly. Lansing, Mich. 

Southwest Journal of Education. Nashville, Tenn. 

Teacher. Monthly. Philadelphia. 

Teacher's Institute. Monthly. New York. 

Texas School Journal. Dallas, Texas. 

Western School Journal. Monthly. Kansas, 

Wisconsin School Journal. Madison, Wis. 



CLASSIFICATION. 305 



CLASSIFICATION 



The importance of bringing together pupils of nearly 
equal attainments into one class, in each of the sub- 
jects taught, is recognized by all. The' practical ques- 
tion for teachers to consider is. How shall the classifica- 
tion be made so as to secure the greatest good to the 
greatest number, and at the same time encourage to 
the greatest extent, or rather discourage to the least 
extent, the natural propensities and activities of each 
individual ? 

To accomplish these ends, it is evident that those 
only who know the needs, capacities, and acquirements 
of the pupils should make the classification. The result 
of a single examination, or of any number of examina- 
tions, alone should not determine the class into which 
pupils shall go. The age, health, habits, and purposes 
of the pupil shovdd be considered in determining his 
place, the only question being. Where can the pupil do 
most for himself? 

Graded Schools. — A close classification would make 
all the pupils of a school recite in the same classes in 
all stiidies. There are certainly advantages in this plan ; 
but it is a question whether it may not be well some- 
times to allow pupils to recite in a higher or lower class 
in one or two studies. For example, a boy is by nature 
or by extra study farther advanced in arithmetic than 
in reading and geography. If he has but a limited time 
to attend school, it would seem to be right to have him 
recite with one class in reading and geography, and 
with another class in arithmetic. 

Again, there are occasionally pupils who, by reason 



306 ORGANIZATION. 

of weakness or ill health, cannot take all the studies 
taught in the school. Such pupils should be allowed 
to omit one or more of the regular studies, and even 
be excused from school attendance, except when their 
classes are reciting. 

There is of course danger in such irregularity of 
classification, and the number of cases must be 
limited ; but there are instances when it is not only 
justifiable, but necessary for the best interests of the 
pupils. 

Basis of Classification. — The rights of active and 
bright-minded pupils should be protected, no less than 
those of the weak and dull. Inequalities both in the 
abilities of pupils, and in the amount accomplished, 
should be recognized in classifying, as well as in 
arranging the course of studies and conducting the 
recitation. The average abilities and attainments, there- 
fore, should be the basis of classification, so far as the 
amount of work required is concerned. Where close 
classification is required, as it should be required gen- 
erally in graded schools, it is customary to take read- 
ing as the basis in the primary schools, and arithmetic 
in the higher grades. 

Size of Classes. — The mistake should not be made 
of making the classes too large. The number should 
be sufficiently small for the teacher to reach every 
individual member, at least to the extent of knowing 
the peculiarities of each pupil, and of adapting the 
teaching and instruction to the needs of each. Thirty 
pupils in primary grades, and forty in grammar grades, 
are quite as many as one teacher can be expected to 
teach, and teach well. A less number would doubtless 



CLASSIFICATION. 807 

be better for individual pupils, while more would tend 
to force the teacher into mechanical wa3^s of teaching, 
making one pupil do the same work as every other one, 
and in precisely the same way. 

Divisions. — If there is but one grade in a room, it 
should be divided into two divisions, so as to allow 
time for one division to study while the other is recit- 
ing. There are several reasons why a school of thirty 
or forty should not recite together in arithmetic, read- 
ing, or geography. First, as has been intimated, the 
wants of individual pupils are not attended to as they 
should be. Secondly, the time for independent study 
and reflection is exceedingly limited, and even the brief 
time for study is frequently interrupted by remarks and 
explanations from the teacher. 

Intervals hetiveen Classes. — In most graded schools 
at the present time, the classes are one year apart ; that 
is, the gradation is so made as to render a readjustment, 
or "promotion," necessary only once a year. This plan 
of grading may be necessary in some places and under 
some circumstances, but where there is a sufficient 
number of pupils, the intervals should be shorter and 
the promotions more frequent. The aim should be to 
have the work adjusted as nearly as possible to the 
wants and capacity of each pupil. If this aim is a true 
one, it is manifest that the shorter the interval between 
the classes, the better, provided of course the transfer 
of pupils from one grade to another does not cause too 
great interruption. An interval of only ten weeks, or 
one-fourth of a year, has been tried with success in some 
places. In other places the interval is twenty weeks, or 
half of a year. This plan is entirely feasible in most 



308 OKGANIZATION. 

of our cities and large towns, and its adoption would do 
much to overcome the faults of the system of yearly 
promotions. In writing, drawing, and other general 
exercises, all can work together ; but in all other studies 
the divisions will recite separately, one division studying 
while the other is reciting. In this way one great fault 
of too much help and recitation is avoided, and the 
benefits of independent work assured. Concentration 
and originality are gained when pupils are required to 
work independently and alone a portion of the time, to 
a degree far greater than when much time is spent in 
recitation, and when too much assistance is given in 
study. The advantage of semi-annual promotions is 
most clearly seen in classifying new pupils or those who 
have been absent a part of the year. It is a well-known 
fact that, under the system of yearly promotions, pupils 
are frequently obliged to go over once or twice work 
which has been done before, and in some cases pupils, 
notably those who work a part of the year in the factory, 
do not get beyond the merest rudiments before they are 
fourteen years of age. Under the other system, these 
faults are largely overcome, and pupils are much bet- 
ter accommodated. Moreover, if a pupil is not well 
enough to do the whole work of the class, he may do a 
portion of it and lose but six months instead of a year, 
— time which he maybe able to gain later in the course. 
Many a pupil under the system of annual promotions, 
discouraged by the loss of several months, leaves school 
long before he otherwise would. 

Bat the feature of shorter intervals between classes 
commends itself most strongly in the greater facility 
with which the work of pupils may be adapted to 



CLASSIFICATION. 309 

their capacity and strength. A system of chissifi- 
cation which practically permits no difference in the 
amount of work to be done by pupils, but forces dull 
pupils beyond their strength and. keeps back bright 
ones, is harmful alike to both classes. When only five 
months' work lies ahead of a bright and ambitious 
pupil, it may easily be overcome, especially when the 
plan of study is graded to the average capacity onl}^ of 
a class. Many pupils will be able to work into higher 
divisions, who otherwise would form habits of idleness 
and distaste of study in being obliged to do only the 
required work of less fortunate pupils. To avoid the 
danger of undue pressure, the parents in every case 
should be notified, and the child be given extra work 
only by their consent. The mistake of slighting impor- 
tant parts of the course is also avoided by having the 
j)upil work into the higher division gradually, — an 
additional argument for having two divisions in a room. 

Partially Graded Schools. — In some places the con- 
ditions require all the pupils of a neighborhood to be 
placed in two or three rooms. When this is the case, 
it is necessary to make the intervals between the classes 
one year or more, and to have three or four classes in 
each room. With such an arrangement of classes it 
is not difficult to follow the plan as outlined in the 
graded course, making a careful selection of work 
assigned for general exercises. 

Ung-raded Schools. — The classification of ungraded 
schools will depend much upon circumstances. If there 
are two teachers (as there should be if there are more 
than twenty-five pupils), more minute classification may 
be made than if there is only one. In some ungraded 
schools the older pupils predominate ; in others, the 



310 ORGANIZATION. 

younger. In some places the older pupils are taken 
from the ungraded district schools and placed in a cen- 
tral grammar or high school; in other places no higher 
school of any kind supplements the work of the un- 
graded school. No exact rule, therefore, for classifying 
ungraded schools can be laid down. But in general it 
may be said that no close classification should be at- 
tempted in ungraded schools, but that every pupil 
should recite in the class for which he is best fitted, 
whatever the subject may be. For instance, a pupil 
may be in the first class in arithmetic and the second in 
reading ; while another pupil may be in the second class 
in arithmetic and the first in reading. Again, there 
should be as few classes as possible consistent with the 
good of all. The false pride of pupils and the igno- 
rance of parents as to what is best for their children 
should not prevent the teacher from doing his duty in 
this regard. Too often the pupil and parent alike meas- 
ure progress in education by the number of pages of 
the book that are "gone over." And too often, also, 
there is some disgrace attached to a pupil who is put 
into another class. All of these hindrances to good 
classification must be met and overcome in one way 
or another. The parents may be made to see that the 
older pupils should recite only two or three times a 
week in some studies, and that there may be a less 
minute classification in some studies than in others. 
In geography, for example, they may see that a knowl- 
edge of one country does not depend upon a knowledge 
of another, and that drill in one part of the spelling- 
book may be as useful as drill in another part. The 
following classification might be made in many ungraded 
schools, consisting of pupils from five to fifteen years of 



CLASiSIFiCATiON. 311 

age : four classes in reading, including one class in the 
reading of history; five classes in arithmetic; two classes 
in geography, besides the class of younger pupils who 
are reciting orally lessons in home geography; four 
classes in spelling, two of which may be heard at the 
same time; one class in physiology, — the rest to be 
heard orally ; one class in history ; one class in English 
grammar; and one in language. The singing, drawing, 
and observation lessons may be taught as general exer- 
cises to all the pupils at once. 

It may not be well for a new teacher to make such a 
classification at once, nor carry out all at once the plan 
of hearing the older pupils recite on alternate days. It 
might be better for him to adopt for a time the classifica- 
tion which he finds, in the hope that he may gradually 
change it for the better. 

Daily Programme of Recitations and Study. — The 
good teacher always has, either in mind or on paper, 
a carefully prepared programme in which the times and 
subjects of recitation and study are well defined. With- 
out a definite plan of work, there is danger of unequal 
attention being given to the subjects, and of disturbance 
in the preparation of lessons. To make a programme 
in which a proper share of time is given to recitation 
and to stud}^ and in which the time allotted to each sub- 
ject is commensurate with the importance of that sub- 
ject, is no easy task. It is obvious that no one programme 
would be suited to all schools, or even to all schools of 
the same kind and grade, so widely dissimilar are the 
conditions in different schools, and even in the same 
school at different times. The following programmes, 
which were found in actual operation, may be sugges- 
tive to teachers : — 



31; 



ORGANIZATION. 



YL GRAMMAR GRADE.— Two Divisions. 



— •— 


TIME. 


RECITATION. 


STUDY. 


Begin. 


Length. 


A Division. 


B Division. 


A.M. 

9 00 


MIN. 

5 
15 


Devotional Exercise 
Singing 






9.05 












9.20 


20 
20 


General Exercise 
Arithmetic. A. 






9.40 












10.00 


10 

20 


Arithmetic. A. & B. 
B. 






10.10 


Reading 








10.30 
10.45 


15 

20 


Recess. 
Reading. A. 


— 


Reading 


11.05 


20 
35 

30 
30 


Reading. B. 
Language. A. & B. 

Intermission. 
Writing or Drawing. A.&B. 
Geog. & Sight-Reading. A. 


Geography 




11.25 
12.00 

P.M. 

1.30 

2.00 


Geography 






2.30 


30 
15 


Geog. & Sight-Reading. B. 

Recess. 


Spelling 




3.00 


— 


3.15 


15 
30 


Spelling. A. & B. 
Gen'l Exercise and Study 






3.30 


— 


— 


4.00 


— 


Dismission. 


— 


— 



Friday. Physiology, Observation Lessons, Memory Lessons, etc. 



DAILY PROGRAMME. 



313 



PRIMARY SCHOOL. — Four Grades. 
Thirty-nine pupils from six to twelve years of age. 



TIME. 


RECITATION. 


BUSY-WORK AND STUDY. 




o 


Grade I. 

(Lowest.; 


Grade II. 


Grade III. 


Grade IV. 


A.M. 

9.00 
9.05 


MIN. 

5 
5 


Devotional Exer. 
Mem. Gems (all) 


— 


— 


— 


— 


9.10 
9.15 


5 
15 


Music (all) 
Writing- (all) 


— 


— 


— 


— 


9.30 


30 
15 


I.&.II. Reading 
III, Number 






Number 




10.00 


Slate and 
Splints 


Number 


Number 








10.15 


15 
15 


I. Number 
Recess. 




Number 


Writing 




10.30 


— 




10.45 
10.55 


10 
15 


General Exercise 
IV. Number 


Slate-w'k 


Number 


Reading 


— 


11.10 


10 
15 


II. Number 

III. Reading 


Slate-w'k 
Copying 




Reading 


Language 


11.20 


Language 








11.35 


15 
10 


IV. Geography 
IV. Sp. & Lang. 


Designs 
Splints 


Language 
Language 


Language 
Language 




11.50 








12.00 


— 


Intermission. 


— 


— 


— 


— 


P.M. 

1.30 
1.45 


15 
15 


Music (all) 
I. Reading 


— 


Reading 


Reading 


Reading 






2.00 


10 
15 


II. Reading 

III. Sp. & Lang. 


Busy-w'k 
Busy-w'k 




Reading 




2.10 


Busy-w'k 


Geogr'y 






2.25 
2.30 


5 
15 


Recess. 
IV. Reading 


Busy-w'k 


Busy-iv'k 


Language 


— 






2.45 


15 
30 


IV. Drawing 
Obs.L.&L'g.(all) 


Busy-w'k 


Busy-w'k 


Language 




3.00 


— 


3.30 


— 


Dismission. 


— 


— 


— 


— 



Tuesday A.M. 11-12. Sewing Teacher. 

Monday. Once in two weeks. 9.30-10. Music Teacher. 

Fridaij P.M. 3-3.30. Good time. 



814 



ORGANIZATION. 



PRIMARY AND INTERMEDIATE SCHOOL. 

Twenty-five pupils, ranging from six to twelve years of age. The 
youngest pupils are beginners, and the most advanced pupils are 
studying Fractions and reading in the Fourth Reader. There are four 
classes in most subjects. 



TIME. 


RECITATION. 


BUSY-WORK AXD STUDY. 


3 


h4 


Grade I. 

(Lowest.) 


Grade II. 


Grade III. 


Grade IV. 


A.M. 

9.00 


MIN. 

15 
20 


Dev. Ex. & Singing 
Writing (all) 










9 15 




















9.35 
9 45 


10 
15 


I. Reading 

II. Read. & Spell. 


Copying 


Arithme'c 


Arithme'c 
Arithme'c 


Language 
Arithme'c 








10 00 


20 
15 


III. Arithmetic 

Recess. 


Splints & Arithme'c 




Arithme'c 


10.20 


Pegs 


_ 


_ 




10.35 


20 
15 


IV. Arithmetic 
I. & II. Arithmetic 


Cop'g,etc. 


Language 


Geogra'y 
Geogra'y 




10.55 


Geogra'y 








11 10 


10 
20 


Gymnastics 
III. Geography 


Dismissed 








10 20 


Language 




Geogra'y 






10 40 


20 


IV. Geography 


— 


R'g&Sp'g 


Language 








12.00 


60 


Infer mission. 


— 


— 


— 


— 


P.M. 

1 00 


20 


I. Read. & Numb. 




R'g&Lan. 


Language 










1.20 


20 
25 


II. Read. & Lang. 

III. & IV. Lang. 


Busy-w'k 
Busy-w'k 




R'g&Sp'g 


Language 


140 


Copying 










2.05 
2 10 


5 
10 


Gymnastics 
Ment.Arith.(all) 


— 


— 


— 


— 












2 20 


15 
10 


I.&II. Obs.Less. 
Becess. 






K'g&Sp'g 


R'g&Sp'g 


2.35 


Dismissed 


— 


2 45 


25 
25 


III. Read. & Spell. 

IV. Read. & Spell. 




Language 
Reading 




K'g&Sp'g 


3 10 


Arithme'c 






3 35 


15 

10 


Obs. Less, (all) 
Gen. Exer. (all) 


— 








3 50 

















DAILY PROGKAMME. 315 



UNGRADED SCHOOL. 

Thirty-five pupils from five to sixteen years of age. 
[One afternoon each week given to general exercises.] 

Time. — Min. 

5. Devotional Exercise. 

10. Singing. 

15. First Reader and Number. 

15. Second Reader. 

20. I. Arithmetic. 

15. IV. Arithmetic. 

15. Recess or Gymnastics. 

15. III. Arithmetic. 

15. II. Arithmetic. 

15. I. and II. Spelling. 

20. Primary and Intermediate Language. 

20. General Exercise (Observation Lesson). 

INTEKMISSIOX. 

15. Grammar. 

15. First Reader and Number. 

15. Second Reader. 

20. Third Reader. 

25. Writing or Drawing. 

15. Recess or Gymnastics. 

15. I. Geography or History. 

15. II. Geography. 

20. Fourth Reader. 

25. General Exercise. 



316 ORGANIZATION. 

Records and Reports. — The time and strength of 
the teacher should be given to no work which does not 
directly or indirectly conduce to the welfare of the 
schooL No records for mere show should be kept, nor 
reports and averages be made out which appeal to the 
pride of any one, or which serve as an artificial stinlu- 
lant to study. 

Statistics of the age and attendance of pupils in ac- 
cordance with the requirements of the State should be 
kept, and such records as will enable the teacher to note 
the progress of his pupils and to aid him in placing them 
where they will do the most for themselves. 

For the purpose of informing the parents of the 
character of their children's work and of securing their 
co-operation, blanks should be filled out either periodi- 
cally or when occasion requires. It is well for parents 
to receive a report as often as once a month. This 
report should indicate in a general way how the pupil 
is doing in each branch of study and what his conduct 
is. It should not contain the standing of the pupil 
with reference to others in his class, nor is it necessary 
to indicate fine distinctions, such as would be made by 
per cent marks. All that it is necessary to give in the 
report is what the teacher would give in reply to the 
parents' questions : How is my child doing in each 
branch of study? What is his behavior? What is his 
attendance? The following report for grammar-school 
pupils is suggested. It should be upon a card six or 
seven inches long and four or five inches wide. The 
months can be indicated to suit the circumstances. 



RECORDS AND REPORTS. 



317 



PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 



— i 


— - 


J - 


- — 




.School. 


— 


.--- 


- — 


Class. 




For the 

Month 

of 


DC 


_c 

Q. 
CO 


< 


fcO) 

c 

-1 


1 


tub 

c 
Q 


1 
1 

OP 

CD 


o 


O 


1 


£ 
i- 


Signature of 
Parent or Guardian. 


SEPT. 


























OCT. 


























NOV. 


























DEC. 


























JAN. 





























To the Parent or Guardian: 

A means Excellent ; B, Good ; C, Fair ; D, Poor ; E, Very Poor. 

If the Scholarship or Deportment continues to be poor, will you 
please call at the schoolroom for further particulars, especially if 

poor health or any other circumstance prevents h from doing 

more work. Irregularity of attendance greatly interferes with the 
progress of the pupil, and may oblige h . . . . to repeat the work of a 
term or year. You are cordially invited to visit the school at any 
time. 

Please sign and return as soon as possible. 



Teacher. 



318 OKGAXIZATION, ETC. 



School, 

-^..188. 



M. 



You ivill see hy 

Montlily Report that is not doing thoroughly 

the ivork of the School. Thus far this term neither 
the written examination nor daily work indicate 

that it will he best for to go into a higher 

division next , hut that it may he 

necessary to revieiv the present studies another term. 

If, however, you think it possible or hest for 

to do more ivork, will you please call here at the 
Schoolroom, or drop me a note, so that we can have 

a better understanding of needs and capacity, 

and arrange the ivork luith reference to them. 



Respectfully, 

Teacher. 

Please sign and return this. 

[Place for signing.] J' 



RECORDS AND EEPOUTS. 319 

School, 

., 188.__. 

M_ 

deportmejit 

at school is not satisfactory. 

I think it best to inform yon of the fact, that all 

influences may he brought to bear upon 

before any serious form of punishment is resorted to. 



Respectfully, 

Teacher. 

To aid in maintaining good order, please sign and return thisi 

{Place for signing.] 



320 ORGANIZATION. 

[To be sent to the School Committee or Superintendent.] 
REPORT OF THE PUNISHMENT 

f.-P [N.1ME] [AGE] 

Residence. 

Date of Pimislnnent, 188 

THE TEACHER WILL PLEASE WRITE ANSWERS TO THE FOLLOWING: 

1. In what manner was the above-named pupil punished? 



^, 


What was the offence ? 










3 












4. 


What do you know of the home influences surrounding him? 




f), 


What other means have you employed for his reform? 











6. Were his parents duly notified of his conduct before you resorted to corporal 

punishment? 

What was the response? 



7. Has he ever been referred to the Principal or Superintendent? 
How many times? 

8. What was the result of the punishment? .__ 



Teacher. 



MOliAL TP.AINIXG. 321 

MORAL TRAINING AND SCHOOL 
GOVERNMENT. 

If we ask ourselves seriously the question, What is 
education for ? there will arise in our minds a train of 
reasoning which will lead to the conclusion tliat the 
building up of character is not only a great and impor- 
tant part of education, but that it is really the only end 
to be sought. To know how to buy and sell commodi- 
ties, to be able to learn the ideas of others through the 
printed page, and to be able to express to others our 
ideas by writing, — all these acquirements are good and 
useful for us to have ; but they are good and useful only 
so far as we put them to a good use in right living, — 
only so far as our actions are the expression and ultima- 
tion of a high and unselfish purpose of being useful to 
others. 

Acknowledging that moral training for the young is 
necessary, we have first to inquire whether any part of 
that work belongs to the school. It is said by some 
that the function of the school is to cultivate the intel- 
lect alone, and that moral training belongs to the home. 
There is no question that the home should have a large 
share in the moral training of the child. It is a fact, 
however, patent to all, that ther^ are many homes in 
almost all communities which do nothing to elevate the 
condition of the young, and if example counts for any- 
thing, as we know it does, there are thousands of chil- 
dren to-day who are becoming worse rather than better, 
by constant association with unprincipled parents. For 
the sake of these children and for the protection of the 



322 MOKAL TRAINING, ETC. 

community some means must be provided to do what 
parents leave undone. 

But it is said that moral training belongs to the 
church. An hour or two a week of counsel and in- 
struction, however good the counsel and instruction 
may be, is not enough to counteract the bad influences 
constantly surrounding the child. And even if the 
church should do more than it now does, it cannot afford 
to scorn assistance which the school is able to give. 
Again, we are told that there is moral power gained by 
cultivating the intellect alone. This is undoubtedly true 
to a certain extent, but the elevating influence of mere 
mental training is much exaggerated in the minds of 
most people. Indeed, when we see the rapidly increasing 
amount of worse than useless literature which is being 
read by persons possessed of the rudiments of learning 
only, we may well wonder if a little learning or only 
learning is not a most dangerous thing. No ; it belongs 
to the school, and to the school mainly, to lead the young 
into habits of " complete living," which depends quite as 
much upon the cultivation of the sensibilities and will 
as upon the cultivation of the intellect or the acquisition 
of knowledge. 

Reg-iilar Studies, Means, not Ends. — "But," says the 
overworked teacher, struggling with liis crowded course 
of studies, "wdiere is the time for all this?" Here is 
implied the greatest mistake of our common-school 
system, — the notion that the branches of study are so 
many separate subjects to be taught and studied as ends 
rather than as means. The subjects which may be 
classed under the general head of " Morals," and which 
should be taught in school, may perhaps take no set 



MORAL TRAINING. 323 

time for presentcatioii ; yet there should be no time of 
the school ill which they are not in the mind of the 
teacher, ready for use whenever an opportunity presents 
itself. The instruction need not be by formal lectures, 
though these are by no means as objectionable as many 
would have us believe, especially if they are given in 
the form of familiar illustrations or stories. But the 
spirit of these virtues should so pervade the atmosphere 
of the schoolroom as to give to the child every hour of 
the day newer and higher ideas of his relation to others. 
Even in the regular studies must the teacher keep in 
mind their ethical side. 

In reading, the children should be brought into close 
contact with all that is good, true, and beautiful in 
human life. By means of the printed page the best 
examples of practical wisdom and goodness are set 
before them. While they are learning these lessons, 
they are learning to look for goodness in others, and 
they are also learning to incorporate it in tliemselves. 
Continuous practice in reading wdll make such employ- 
ment easy and pleasant ; and if the reading is rightly 
directed, the habits thus formed will lead the children 
to seek the best literature after they leave school. 
And this direction should not be merely general and 
occasional : it must be particular and constant. Instead 
of talking about good reading, such reading should be 
brought into the schoolroom and read there. School 
libraries should be formed in ever}^ gratnmar and high 
school building, and the books from these libraries and 
from the public library should be used under the direct 
supervision and encouragement of the teacher. Let us 
not for a moment lose sigrht of the dano-ers which 



324 MOKAL TKAl^lNG, ETC. 

threaten our young people in the bad and unwholesome 
literature with which the shelves of our shops are 
loaded. That it is to-day poisoning the intellectual and 
moral life-blood of our people, no one who keeps his 
eyes open to what is going on about him can deny. 
As teachers we cannot expect to bring into healthy life 
these diseased minds. But we can and should do much 
to counteract the evil influences of our time by making 
the poison bitter or nauseous to the taste, and by creat- 
ing a desire and love for the best literature. 

What is true of reading is true of every branch of 
study taught in the schools. The end to be reached is 
not to cultivate the intellect of the pupils alone, nor to 
help them to gather facts together merely for the sake 
of possession ; but it is to prepare them for the duties 
of life — to ennoble and to make more effective the 
employments upon which they are to enter. Therefore, 
in every subject taught, whether it be language, or 
history, or mathematics, or science, the one great end 
of education, "complete living," should be kept con- 
stantly in mind by the teacher. 

The direct influence of good methods of teaching 
upon the behavior of children can scarcely be over- 
estimated. AVhen subjects are presented in the right 
way, the interest in study and in the subjects studied 
is so great that the inclination to wrong-doing is pre- 
vented; and if the child has evil tendencies or has 
formed bad habits, they can be corrected much more 
ensily if he has acquired a good method of doing, and 
a love of doing, some useful work. 

Influence of Example. — We must recognize the fact 
that a child is guided in his early years more by his 



MOllAL TRAINING. 325 

feelings than by any intellectual perception of right and 
wrong. We must remember, also, that he is by nature 
imitative in all his acts, and that the influence of exam- 
ple is especially powerful in these early years. What- 
ever is wrong in the conduct of the parent or teacher 
will be, we may be sure, incorporated to some degree 
in the child's life. The personal surroundings of the 
child, therefore, come to be an important factor of his 
education. Reverence, truthfulness, sincerity, and unself- 
ishness make their first and strongest impressions upon 
the child when they are practised in the lives of those 
who are about him, and especially of those in whose 
charge he is and to whom he naturally looks for guid- 
ance. 

The principle that the teacher should be all he would 
have his pupils be is a most important one, and exacts 
from him more than at first appears. Both in school 
and out he must be watchful, lest by the slightest word 
or act he swerves from the path in which he would lead 
his pupils. This high standard of living is demanded 
of the teacher not only for its direct influence upon the 
young, but also for the added power which his words 
of counsel will have. 

MORAL INSTRUCTION. 

Can anything more be done in school than is done in 
the regular studies to accomplish the highest ends of 
education? Two direct ways present themselves — 
ways that are at once practicable and effective. The 
first of these ways is instruction. 

Reg-ular Talks. — The use of regular talks with pupils 
upon subjects connected with morals has been spoken 



326 MOEAL TKAINIKG, ETC. 

of. It is true that these exercises are deprecated by 
many teachers. But a little observation may convince 
us that those who deprecate most strongly the practice 
of giving regular talks to their pupils, seldom resort to 
other and better methods. Of course it would not be 
necessary or well to give set discourses upon the various 
virtues to young children. But if — say upon every 
Monday morniug — the teacher should direct the atten- 
tion of his pupils to some one subject, such as honesty, 
forgiveness, temperance, justice, kindness to animals, 
and the like, by giving appropriate illustrations and 
anecdotes, who can say that some seed may not be sown 
upon good ground? The stories ma}^ be of incidents 
in the lives of illustrious men and women, or they may 
be of incidents which have actually occurred within the 
observation of the teacher. 

Incidental Instruction. — But useful as such exer- 
cises are, they should not take the place of what may be 
called incidental instruction. In every school events 
are constantly happening in coiniection with which 
some good lesson ma}^ be given at the time of their 
occurrence. A boy has, perhaps, found a knife and not 
restored it to the owner ; or a pu[)il has copied a lesson 
or an examination from a classmate's paper; or the 
bo3^s have been found playing marbles "for keeps": 
these and a hundred other incidents of school life may 
furnish the very best text for a talk with the pupils, 
when the wrong or injury done is fresh in their minds. 

Devotional Exercise. — There is another exercise of 
the school which should have an elevating influence 
upon the children, and that is the devotional exercise. 
As commonly conducted, this exercise has little or no 



MORAL TRAINING. 327 

good moral influence ; indeed, when conducted, as it 
too often is, in a cold, careless, or perfunctory wa}^, 
tliere may be more harm than good done by it. Indif- 
ference on the part of the teacher induces indifference 
and disorder on the part of the pnpils, and when dis- 
order accompanies the devotional exercise, there is 
encouraged in the children a spirit of disregard and 
contempt for serious things wliich may affect the whole 
future of their lives. The devotional exercise must 
be marked by a devotional spirit on the part of the 
teacher. More will depend upon that than upon what 
is done. When the hands of the clock indicate that 
the time for opening has come, let every pupil be in 
his seat; and when there is absolute stillness in the 
room, — not before, — let the teacher take the Bible 
reverently in his hands and read slowly a few verses. 
Then let him repeat slowly and devoutly the prayer 
with which all are familiar, and to conclude let the 
children sing two stanzas of some familiar hymn. It 
may take less than five minutes for all this ; but if it 
is done as it should be, in a subdued and devout spirit, 
it will have an effect upon all the subsequent work 
of the day. Moreover, it will lead the children to 
respect and venerate all the counsels that the teacher 
may give, for they see better than any one else that 
such counsels come from a Christian spirit of love. 

Memorizing- Gems. — Akin to this exercise in its 
effect is the recitation by the children of gems, — noble 
sentiments in prose and poetry. A stated number of lines 
AAcekly — say from five to ten — should be memorized 
and written correctly in books prepared for the purpose. 
For this purpose two or three of the best books of selec- 



328 MOKAL TKAINING, ETC. 

tions should be upon the table of every teacher. These 
and the ordinary reading-books will furnish material 
•with which the children's minds may be elevated and 
enriched. 

The second direct means of teaching morals is the 
regulation of conduct in the 

GOVERNMENT OF THE SCHOOL. 

Morals, as defined by Webster, is " the doctrine or 
practice of tlie duties of life, — manners, conduct, be- 
havior." It is not necessary to discuss here the relation 
of morals as thus defined, to the morals which belong 
to religion ; nor that other question which is constantly 
forced upon us, namely, whether we are not trenching 
upon ground which properly belongs to the church, 
when we depart from purely intellectual training. 
Suffice it to say, that the morals which it is incum- 
bent upon us to teach rehite to the outward conduct 
of the individual in his relations with others, and that 
the character thus formed is the basis of the religious 
experience and life which follow. This idea by no 
means precludes the necessity of giving close attention 
to motives in older children. Indeed, without such 
attention the child may be led to believe that outward 
order or correctness of living is the only end to be 
sought independent of the governing motive. In this 
way hypocrisy — the most insidious of evils — uncon- 
sciously creeps into the life hidden behind a kind of 
"smartness," which is too often regarded as the highest 
virtue to be sought. 

Toward what, then, shall we direct the steps of our 
children ? To do contentedly and happily some useful 



SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 6'2\) 

work in the world ; to resist temptations to do wrong, 
independent of external restraints ; and in all the rela- 
tions of life to treat others as he himself would be 
treated, — these are the characteristics of the life of a 
good man, and they are the ends toward which we 
should work in school. These can best be secured in 
the government of the school, by which is meant every- 
thing pertaining to the school life of the child. 

There is nothing in the life of the good man or 
woman that cannot find its counterpart, or at least its 
image, in the schoolroom. The conditions of life in 
the school and in the world are much the same, and he 
is a wise teacher who makes the experience of the one 
a direct preparation for the experience of the other. 

Forynation of Habits. — We all know the tendency of 
repetition which the child has. If he does pleasurably 
or easily an act at any time, the presumption may be, 
that he will repeat the act at a convenient opportunity, 
and again repeat it, until a habit is formed. If the 
habit thus formed is a good one, as, for example, the 
habit of attention or of truthfulness, it will be a powerful 
means of mental or moral growth ; but if it be a bad 
habit, as the habit of inattention or of deception, it will 
stand in the way of progress until by hard experience 
it is removed. The formation of a habit, therefore, is 
everywhere recognized as a powerful agent for good or 
ill in the child's education. Indeed, the usefulness of 
the school consists mainly in the formation of good 
habits.. The habits of observation, of attention, and of 
industry, for example, are much more to the child than 
all the information he acquires; while in matters of 
conduct, tlie habits he forms in school are worth to him 
more than all other thing's combined. 



330 MORAL TRAINING, ETC. 

We desire first of all to get the child into the habit 
of doing just what we hope to have him do in after 
life. We desire to have tlie good habits so fixed that he 
will involuntarily act from them during the first few 
years of childhood, and that afterwards they will be a 
bulwark of defence against temptations, and will be 
followed from a free and happy choice. 

Obedience, — The habit of obedience stands first 
among the best habits of childhood. In his earlier 
years the child obeys implicitly, without asking for rea- 
sons; that is, he thus obeys if we have not been care- 
less, inconsistent, and vacillating in the exercise of our 
authority. Our will is his wall in these early years, and 
he is satisfied to have us regulate his conduct. Later, 
he begins to desire to exercise his will, and demands 
more frequently than before reasons for our denials of 
his requests. All this may be a sign of development, 
and his growing independence should be respected, and 
even anticipated. We must not assume that the child 
is always obstinate or wilful when he demurs or hesi- 
tates. The fault may be partly our own. If we give a 
thoughtful consideration to every request before our 
decision is made, and then uniformly adhere to the 
decision when it is made ; if all our judgments are for 
the best interests of the ehild, and we take pains to 
make them appear so to him ; if, in a word, the child 
has confidence in our wisdom, there will be little or no 
opposition on his part to our judgments as they are 
given. But if we give our decisions in a hasty way, 
considering them after they are given rather than be- 
fore, or if our decisions are arbitrary, wntli no apparent 
justice in them even to the child himself, there will be 



SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 331 

much opposition on his part, not only to our unjust 
decisions, but to all decisions we may give.' 

It cannot be denied that even with the greatest care 
from the first, our will and the will of the child may 
sometimes come into collision. Adverse conditions may 
exist over which we have no control. The chikUs mind 
or our own may be in an unhealthy state through sick- 
ness of the body ; frequent change of masters may be 
made wdiose methods do not agree ; or the child may 
inherit a quick temper, which sometimes shows itself 
very early in life. All these conditions or any one of 
them may prevent prompt and willing obedience. But 
generally it may be said that, if proper care is taken, 
there will be little need of an active exercise of au- 
thority on our part, and that we shall never need to do 
what some parents and teachers regard as necessary, 
namely, break the will of the child by severe punish- 
ment. Sternness, and even severity, may be at times 
necessary, but they should be exercised — and be seen 
to be so exercised — in love and sorrow, rather than 
in a hasty or angry manner, as too many commands 
and punishments seem to be. 

Truthfulness. — There are few qualities of childhood 
more full of grace, and at the same time more full of 
promise for the future, than that of open-hearted, sincere 
truthfulness. How to secure it is indeed a difficult 
task, all the more difficult from the fact that the earliest 
forms of untruthfulness are likely to escape our notice 
because they are so hidden. Sly evasions both in word 
and deed, unfulfilled promises, exaggerated descriptions 
of what has been seen, one-sided and colored accounts 
of wrong done, — all these and many other forms of 



332 MORAL TRAIN lis' G, ETC. 

untruthfulness need most careful management. It is 
surprising how careless we become in some matters 
which may have little effect upon uur characters, but 
which have great influeiice upon children. It is a com- 
paratively small thing, for instance, to tinge the descrip- 
tion of an event or thing in such a way as to give a 
wrong impression to others. We may even enconrage 
the children to do this, by manifesting interest or sur- 
prise in their descriptions when we know that they 
are not strictly accurate. Success or non-hindrance in 
equivocating leads the child still further on, until, 
before we are aware of it, deception and falseliood have 
fastened themselves upon his acts and words. The 
remedy lies in our vigilance in detecting the fault, and 
in our patience in correcting it every time it is seen. 
How this may be done will be spoken of in another 
place. 

Industry. — The influence of the good school is in no 
way more plainly manifest than in the formation of the 
habit of industry. When the child first enters school, 
he should be given employment of a suitable kind ; 
by frequent change he should be kept profitably and 
pleasantly occupied all the time he is in school. Gener- 
ally, it may be said that idleness on the part of pupils 
indicates an improper kind or insufficient amount of 
work required. It is true that many pupils who are 
irregular in attendance find it difficult to apply their 
minds to the same kind of work as is given other pupils ; 
and it is also true that, to do justice to all, the teacher 
cannot spend much extra time on these irregular pupils. 
But to as great an extent as possible, the requirements 
should be made to suit the state and cajDacity of every 



SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. SS'S 

pupil, to the end of keeping all pupils at all times 
properly employed. 

Order and Neatness. — To inculcate proper habits of 
order, the teacher finds it necessfiry to attend to little 
things which to an outsider may seem trivial. Such 
tritiiug offences as littering the floor with paper, or 
throwing the books in a heap together in the desk, or 
not returning a book to its proper place, must be cor- 
rected constantly; and it can be done in no better way 
than by having the child do properly what is left un- 
done. The same may be said of carelessness and untidi- 
ness. No punishment is so good for the prevention of 
these faults as the prompt and unvarying correction of 
them by the pupil himself. It is well sometimes to 
appoint for each week a committee of two whose duty 
it is to inspect the desks and other parts of the room, 
and report to the teacher daily their condition as to 
order, etc. 

It is desirable to have toilet appliances constantly at 
hand for the use of pupils who need them. 

Politeness. — The duties of politeness, and a regard 
for the feelings of others, should be taught objectively 
in the every-day life of the school. Constant attention 
to these things Avill do much to fix a good habit, and 
make the common acts of courtesy in after life less irk- 
some and difficult. No rudeness like laughing at the 
mistakes of others, or annoying them in any way, should 
ever be allowed. For every favor received proper ac- 
knowledgments should always be made, and for every- 
thing done which disturbs or incommodes others excuses 
should be given or an apology be offered. Who has 
not seen the marked effect of such a course of training 



334 MORAL TRAINING, ETC. 

given by some faithful teacher, and who can doubt that 
the improved manners of the children react in stimu- 
lating a better feeling toward others? 

Contamination. — One of the most common charges 
against the public schools is that there is danger of con- 
tamination. It is a serious charge, and one to which 
we should give great heed. Wink at it as we may, there 
is real danger, where so many children are thrown to- 
gether, that the better and more sensitive children will 
suffer by contact with others at recess and before and 
after school. Is it too much, under such circumstances, 
that the parents of such children ask, nay, demand, from 
us all the protection that we can give? To add to the 
teacher's burden of care, which is already great, seems 
almost unreasonable ; but knowing as much as you do 
of the bad influence which some of your pupils may 
exert over others, what would you wish done, if you 
were a parent? Would you not prefer that your child 
should have no education if, in getting that educa- 
tion, he must be exposed to the degrading influence of 
vicious companions? But it must not be forgotten 
that while you are protecting the innocent and good, 
you are at the same time correcting the habits of the 
bad. The longer you keep a boy from the use of bad 
words, the less likely will he be to form the habit of 
using them. These are the principal reasons Avhy you, 
or some teacher, sliould be within sight or hearing of 
your pupils at recess. There are other reasons. By 
directing and sympathizing with the children in their 
play, you will find that your hold upon them will be 
stronger in the schoolroom, and that you can lead them 
better there. Besides, you will find the fresh air and 



SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 335 

exercise as good and necessary for your bodily health 
as they are for your pupils. For all of these reasons 
we see that it is not only well, but necessary, for a 
teacher to be with his pupils all the time they are 
committed to his care. 

The Condition of the School Premises. — It is not 
necessary to allude to the degrading effects of the 
improper words and pictures that ai-e found on too 
many of our buildings. There is absolute demoraliza- 
tion and degradation not only to the authors of these 
markings, but to all the young and innocent children 
who see them, — evil effects which can never be effaced. 
Where defilement and symbols of impurity exist, it is 
ahsohitely necessary for somebody to do somethi^ig to 
remedy the evil. The teachers who do not report to 
the school committee the bad condition of the buildings, 
and the committees who do not remedy it, are guilty of 
a most grievous wrong. When the objectionable mark- 
ings are removed, and the buildings are restored, there 
should be constant vigilance on the part of the teachers. 
The doors of all buildings should be locked, and a sys- 
tem of inspecrton be inaugurated that will prevent a 
repetition of the evil. 

We are inclined to place all these things outside of 
what we call the government of the school, whereas 
they are an important part of it. The truth of the 
''ounce of prevention" adage is nowhere more apparent 
than in the precautions which have been mentioned. 
But of all the precautions that can be taken by the 
teacher, none are more powerful in preventing disorder 
and cultivating the will than that of leading pupils to 
govern themselves. 



336 MORAL TRAINING, ETC. 

Punishment. — Few schools can be conducted for any 
length of time without punishments of some form ; and 
the success or failure of a teacher frequently depends 
upon the manner in which the punishments are ad- 
ministered. It becomes a matter of some importance, 
therefore, to know how to punish judiciously. The 
statement of a few principles and cautions may be help- 
ful to some teachers. 

1. Kindness, firmness, and justice should characterize 
every punishment. Punishments which tend only to 
irritate or degrade the offender should be avoided, such 
as pulling the hair or ears, confining pupils in a dark 
room, putting pepper upon the tongue, compelling 
pupils to wear a dunce-cap, using ridicule or sarcasm. 

2. Punishments should never be arbitrarj^ but should 
as nearly as possible naturally follow the offence. 
Extra tasks, for example, should never be given pupils 
for misconduct, not only because tliere is no connection 
between the offence and punishment, but because such 
a course tends to make pupils dislike study. 

3. Penalties should be consistent and uniform; that is, 
an offence should not be punished at onS time, which is 
passed over in silence at another time. Never threaten^ 
or at least never promise what cannot be carried out 
to the letter. Inconsistency and vacillation in the mat- 
ter of punishment have caused more failures in disci- 
pline than anything else. 

4. While the power to punish corporeally should not 
be denied teachers, such punishment should be given 
but seldom. A teacher who teaches well, and who 
is able to keep his pu[)ils constantly employed, one who 
is quick to detect the signs of disorder, and who is skil- 



SCHOOL GOVEEXMENT. 337 

fill in preventing it, is likely never to have a case of 
cor2:)oral punishment. Others, through want of expe- 
rience and tact, may be obliged to resort to corporal 
punishment to maintain their authority. If such pun- 
ishment is unavoidable, let it be clearl}- known what it 
is for, and let it be dispassionately given. It might 
be well, to avoid any danger of passion, to keep tlie 
instrument used for punishment in a place not easily 
reached. An hour at least should intervene between 
the offence and the punishment. The punishment 
should be upon the hand, and with a light rattan. It 
should not be so slight as to excite contempt, nor so 
severe as to do injury to the mind or body of the 
offender. As a rule, it should not be administered in 
the presence of other pupils. As a safeguard against 
mistakes, a report of every case of corporal punish- 
ment should be sent to the school committee or super- 
intendent. A blank for such a report is given on page 
320. 

Conditions of Good Government. — The most frequent 
and at the same time the gravest fault of discipline, is 
the encouragement of deception. The offence, in the eyes 
of the pupils, is generally " being found out,'^ not the 
wrong done. A good disciplinarian is, in the estimation 
of many, not only one who is strong enough to punish 
his pupils vigorously, but one who is sharp enough to 
catch them at their tricks. Too many schools are gov- 
erned on the assumption that the governor and the gov- 
erned .naturally pull in opposite directions; that the 
children are necessarily the sworn enemies of the 
teacher, and he of them. The essential elements of 
good government are, fiist, a friendly public sentiment 



338 MORAL TRAINING, ETC. 

in favor of law and order; and, secondly, a disposition 
on the part of the larger portion of the governed to 
do right, not merely because they are commanded by 
law to do so, but because it is right. Without these 
conditions no government can long continue, and with- 
out them society can scarcely be called civilized. With- 
out these conditions, also, no school can be said to be 
civilized, or at least civilizing in its influence. It is a 
wrong estimate to make upon the moral strength of 
older boys and girls, to assume that they need to be 
tended like babies, on the one hand, or watched like 
criminals, on the other, — an assumption which tends 
to deprive them of the opportunity of exercising their 
freedom of choice between right and wrong. 

Self- Control. — With the young child this principle is 
kept out of sight to a great degree ; but as he advances 
in age he is led to depend less and less upon others and 
more upon himself. It is for us, therefore, to place 
before him higher and higher motives of action. At 
least, we should not appeal, as many do, to the low 
motives ; such as the fear of punishmeiit and the desire 
for high per cent marks. 

We should encourage, so far as we can and so soon 
as we can, the performance of duties based upon the 
principle that the doer is to exercise self-control and 
self-denial, because it is best for him to do so. The 
school is a miniature world, and there are few trials, 
perplexities, jjrivileges, and enjoyments of active life 
in the world which are not experienced to a greater 
or less degree in the schoolroom. Who are the best 
citizens? They who govern themselves. Who are the 
most useful members of society? They wiio look to the 



SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 339 

welfare and comfort of others. Who are best prepared 
to meet the difficulties which contact with the world 
is sure to bring? Plainly, they who have met and mas- 
tered similar ones while they were young. Self-govern- 
ment and a sacred regard for the welfare of others 
should, therefore, be the guiding principles in the gov- 
ernment of the school. 

Illustrative Examjjle. — To see more clearly how 
children may be led into habits of truthfulness and 
self-control, let us go somewhat into details. You are, 
it may be, before a ncAv class or school. What is your 
first duty? Plainly, not to read a lecture upon the 
importance of being good ; nor to expound a long set 
of rules. Let your manner, on entering the school, 
give them assurance that you are the friend of the 
pupils and glad to be with them. If you say anything, 
simply say that you have come to help them, and that 
you hope they will let you. Nothing need be said of 
order. Let the assumption be at the outset that there 
will be no disorder. Set the school to work as soon as 
possible, and endeavor to make the work pleasant and 
agreeable. Upon the first violation of good order, say 
to the offender and to the school that that particular 
offence, and everything like it, ought never to be 
committed, and then tell them the reason ivhy. Be sure 
that this is not omitted, for you must remember that 
your first purpose is to bring your pupils over to your 
side, and you can best do this by establishing a reputa- 
tion for khidness and fairness at the start. Soon there 
is, perhaps, more disorder of a similar kind. Now 
comes your first really practical lesson in self-control. 
Your question is, " Did you know that I do not want 



340 MORAL TRAINING, ETC. 

that done?" or, ''Would you have done that if I had 
been looking?" If the pupil says that he did not know 
that you do not want it done, tell him plainly again, 
and the reason for the prohibition, as before. It is 
neither right nor politic for the teacher to assume, 
as many do, tliat every offence comes from malicious 
intent. Then may be given what will have to be 
repeated hundreds of times, in one form or another, the 
Golden Rule of the schoolroom, "i>o nothing that you 
would 7iot do if the eye of the teacher we7'e upon you,'''' 
Either the words or spirit of this rule must be kept 
constantly in mind and uniformly followed. 

So far you have imposed few restraints. Let this 
course be continued as long as possible, and whenever 
the liberty of pupils is abridged, see to it that they 
have a good reason for it. Also impress upon them 
by practice the fact that the rules which govern their 
behavior are practically made by themselves, and that 
to. abuse any privilege they may have, ought of course 
to deprive them of the privilege. 

But to go back to the first day with our new class. 
By your kindness and evident fairness, you have won 
the respect of tlie better part of your class. This will 
be a powerful help to you in leading the more wilful 
and refractory part of your school. You go on with 
the work of the school, showing that you trust every 
member of it. At length there is disturbance in the 
room from one or more, or it may be that you leave 
the room for a moment and find upon your return 
evidences of disorder. Stop the work, and ask the 
attention of the school for a moment. Say to them 
that you are sorry to know that there is any one who 



SCHOOL GOVEU^'MENT. 341 

is willing to do wrong because he is not watched. 
Show how weak such a boy or girl must be. Compare 
him with those unfortunate and weak men and women 
who have to dodge the policeman for fear he will see 
them ; show the injustice that is done others in making 
you suspect some who are really innocent, and who are 
trying to do their best. Now is the time to get them 
to agree with you that it is much better, and entirely 
within the power of every pupil, to govern his own con- 
duct. Then it will be an easy matter for you to exact 
a pledge from every boy and girl under your charge 
that an effort will be made in this direction. Do not 
require too much at this point. They have made a 
reasonable promise, one they are able to keep, when 
they promise to try to take care of themselves. If they 
promise no more than this, you will have a far greater 
hold upon them than if you made them promise that 
thi-y would govern themselves. You know, and they 
will discover after a time, that they would break such a 
promise ; but you know, and they know, that they can 
and ought to keep the promise to try. 

Sooner or later you come to the time, in the natural 
order of events, when one or more of your pupils have 
not done as they promised to do. That is, you have 
found them dodging you, or doing something disorderly 
behind your back, or in your absence from the room. 
The first case of this kind demands your prompt atten- 
tion. It is a most trying time for you. The pupils' 
estimate of their teacher's wisdom and justice is in sus- 
pense. Upon your action at this time may depend the 
success or failure of 3-our plan. The punishment must 
not be too slight, nor must it be too severe. Above all, 



342 MORAL TKAINING, ETC. 

it must not be arbitrary ; but this, as every punishment, 
must naturally follow the offence. What is the offence? 
Deception. Doing a thing because you were not look- 
ing. Plainl}^ then, the punishment for him should be^ 
that he must be watched, — he of all the school ; no one 
else. It is a notoriety that he does not like ; but he 
sees, and all his mates see, that it is just. Let him 
understand, however, that he will be trusted as he 
proves his sincerity in really trying to govern himself. 

By this time your pupils are thoroughly convinced 
that you are in earnest (that is, if you are in earnest) 
in discouraging something wrong. What is it? Decep- 
tion in every form. They learn, too, that 3^ou are in 
earnest in encouraging something good and right. 
What is it ? Obedience to authority and self-control. 

You may have occasion to resort to various appeals 
before you can bring your pupils to do right in all 
things because it is best. One means of encouragement 
may be the " roll of honor," consisting of all who 
are not in the least deceptive, but who are open 
and honorable in all their actions. They are trusted 
fully and entirely by you, and they will be found to 
assist in everything pertaining to the welfare of the 
school. Again, there may be others, — a very small 
number if the right methods are pursued, — who do not 
control their own conduct, and who are not making an 
effort to do so. These pupils demand your serious atten- 
tion. They are afflicted with a moral disease, and they 
should be most carefully treated. Tliey should be labored 
with, both in and out of school. The help of their 
parents and of the other pupils should be sought, and 
every inducement placed before them to change their 



SCHOOL governme:nt. 343 

course. When punishmeiit is resorted to, it should be 
in a kind and just spirit, and as near as possible a direct 
consequence of the offence. In extreme cases all social 
privileges may be taken away from the offending pupil 
while he is in or near the schoolhouse, he not being 
allowed the privilege of playing with or speaking to his 
mates. He is to be kept entirely apart from the rest 
of the school, on the principle that his influence is dan- 
gerous and harmful. 

Thus you will go on from day to day, following out 
patiently^ this or some other well-defined plan, until 
success crowns your efforts; not the fullest and most 
complete success, perhaps, but such a degree as encour- 
ages you to believe that every one of your pupils is 
affected by a desire and purpose to do right, — not from 
fear of any external consequence, but from choice. 

Sympathy. — But whatever you do for your pupils, 
whether it is by example or precept, whether it is to 
enlarge their understandings or to elevate and strengthen 
their purposes, do not forget that crowning grace of 
the teacher — sympathy. It is a bond between the 
teacher and his pupils by means of which his influence 
will be felt, and without which the highest results of his 
work cannot be realized. 

The example of the wisest teachers may well be fol- 
lowed by us. Shall we ever forget the pictures drawn 
for us in " Schooldays at Rugby," where the old doctor 
is seen at all times as a sympathizing friend and com- 
panion to the boys ? Can we wonder at the influence of 
Pestalozzi which has extended throughout the world, 
and which is felt to-day by us all, as we call to mind the 
patience with which he worked among those beggar 



344 MORAL TRAINING, ETC. 

children at Stanz, gaining their love by the power of his 
love and sympathy ? Do we not recall with gratitude 
the devotion with which the founder of the kinder- 
garten studied the games and plays of little children, to 
know how best he could enter into their states and lead 
them ? It is for us to imitate the noble example of these 
great teachers, and, so far as we can, work with and for 
the children who are placed in our care. Whether we 
have to do with the child of poverty or the child of 
wealth, whether the child is bright or dull, whether 
good or bad, we must remember that the destiny and 
happiness of a human being are partly in our hands, and 
that only as we perceive the states and feel the needs of 
the child are we instrumental in guiding him into a 
higher manhood. 



THE 

NATIONAL MUSIC COURSE 



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riEST AWARDS AT THE UNIVEESAL EXPOSITIONS OF 
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PHILADELPHIA, 1876. NEW ORLEANS, 1885. 



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by these lessons than it can be where the teacher prepares lessons 
for her class from day to day. 

LESSONS FOR SEAT-WORK. 

These lessons are bound in four blocks, or tablets, each of which 
contains ninety-four lessons, covering ten weeks. Forty-seven are 
number lessons, and forty-seven are language lessons. Directions 
for the work are printed in script at the top of the page. The rest 
of each of the odd pages is single-ruled for number work. When 
the number work is done, the sheet is torn off, and on the other 
side of it is a script language lesson, with a double-ruled page. By 
this arrangement the page is clean and new each day ; and, when 
finished, the sheet may be taken home to show what has been done 
in school. 

The price for each tablet is, at retail, 10 cents; for introduction, 8 cents. 



GINN & COMPANY, Publishers, 

Boston, New Yokk, and Chicago. 



